Is the rise of China good or bad for the industrial world Essay

Is the ascent of China positive or negative for the mechanical world - Essay Example The way where it has profited the world economy just as carried another and honorable name to the mechanical spaces is to some degree a fascinating investigation which has occurred with the progression of time. Likewise an exertion has been made to discover what ties together the Chinese vitality and the workforce which continues delivering strong outcomes and makes benchmarks on numerous occasions. Fundamentally, an obvious outline has been made when the discussion has gone for all to hear in regards to China being an intense power inside the mechanical world these days, just as doing as such in the coming occasions without a doubt (Li 1999). Subsequently these conversations will be focused upon inside this paper to discover how the world can find China and how China can become significantly further from where it is today. With the help of major modern players like the European Union, China can become wildly successful inside the worldwide economy. Despite the fact that it is progressing admirably, it needs to blessing from the world’s driving financial bodies. What China can depend on in the interim is that its monetary assets as its own kin trust in themselves and this is the motivation behind why they are viewed as extreme slave drivers. They put stock in difficult work, responsibility and dedication directly from the earliest starting point of accomplishing any work. The world including the European Union and other noteworthy bodies like the United States consider them to be devoted experts who might go to any length to transform the inconceivable undertakings into conceivable and possible things. This is the premise why Chinese have had the option to feature importance through their activities while the remainder of the world has kicked back and made the most of their trees. The ability and aptitudes with which these Chinese experts are loaded up with is declaration enough that the procedures and frameworks inside the nation depend on a strong balance. This is the motivation behind why there are numerous snapshots of achievement with regards to the

In the play Death of a Salesmen What is Miller's definition of the Essay

In the play Death of a Salesmen What is Miller's meaning of the American Dream What does Miller recommend that the Am - Essay Example All through the content Arthur Miller never transparently expresses his idea of the American Dream, rather showing paradoxes encompassing this idea. In any case, it’s clear that in thinking about the skeptical components comparable to their positive speak, one can express an idea of Miller’s American Dream. In one of the most urgent scenes in the play, Willy Loman approaches his manager for a raise. In a urgent supplication to persuade Howard, Loman transfers a narrative story. He states, And when I saw that, I understood that selling was the best vocation a man could need. ’Cause what could be more fulfilling than to have the option to go, at the age of eighty-four, into twenty or thirty unique urban areas, and get a telephone, and be recalled and adored and helped by such a large number of various individuals? (Mill operator Act II, scene ii). This is an unpredictable proclamation. In certain respects, one can contend that Miller is actualizing a dash of comedi c incongruity in Loman’s excessively energetic help for his voyaging sales rep work. In any case, in another setting the activity speaks to for Loman an incomplete acknowledgment of the American Dream. In this calling he has discovered an important methods for obtaining a living.

Are Name Brands Necessary Surprising Items You Can Find at the Dollar Store

Are  Name Brands  Necessary Surprising Items You Can Find at the  Dollar Store Are  Name Brands  Necessary? Surprising Items You Can Find at the  Dollar Store Are  Name Brands  Necessary? Surprising Items You Can Find at the  Dollar StoreAvoid running up your credit card for items you can buy at a fraction of the cost elsewhere. Here’s how you can save your pennies on frequently-bought items.Why pay $5 for something you can buy for $1? Spending the extra $4 is unnecessary if you can get what you need for $1 from your  local  dollar store.Many products aren’t necessarily higher quality just because you spent more money on them â€" especially more ephemeral or  name brand  products that you are only going to use temporarily.Here’s a grand list of items that you can get from a  dollar store, such as  Dollar Tree  or  Family Dollar  that would typically cost you a pretty penny somewhere else.Party suppliesBalloons,  streamers, and confetti are one-time use party items. It doesn’t matter if they are high quality if you are only using them for a few hours before throwing them away. The  dollar store  balloons and steamers will serve your party just as well as more expensive  party supplies.The dollar store has a variety of other party items available, as well, such as decorations, utensils, and more. If you want to save money when throwing a Halloween or holiday party, make the local dollar store your first stop when stocking supplies. For additional tips on saving money during the holidays, check out our post on holiday savings here.One other party item that will run easily run up your bill at a  drugstore,  Target  or somewhere else:  wrapping paper  and other gift-giving materials. Why spend $4 on a roll of  wrapping paper,  greeting cards, or a  gift bag  when the gift recipient is only going to throw it away after opening the present?Picnic suppliesPaper plates, disposable utensils,  food  storage  containers, and more are available for purchase at many  dollar stores. Instead of paying as much as three times the amount for these items at your  grocery store, check out the  dollar store  for disposable eating supplies.Don’t forget  paper towels  and napkins â€" these items can also be purchased for a dollar and are just as good as the expensive versions.Cleaning suppliesBelieve it or not, the $5 glass cleaner is just as good as the $1 glass cleaner. The $5  bleach  is just as good as the $1  bleach. The same ingredients are available for less at your  local  dollar store. If you want to clean your house, stop at the  dollar store  first to find the  cleaning products  you need. You might even find some tools like brooms and dustpans, rags, and more for a discount.Office or  back-to-school  suppliesThe pens and post-it notes that are sold at the dollar store do the job just as well as the pens and post-it notes at office depot. The only difference: The dollar store supplies are half the price, or even cheaper, in comparison. If you need things like copy paper, notebooks, writing utensils, or highlighters, check the dollar store first. You might be able to save a few bucks â€" and many m ore over time â€" on stocking your home office. Remember this during back-to-school season when school supply expenses are bound to make a dent in your checking account and savings is key.Craft suppliesA surprisingly diverse variety of craft supplies are available at the  dollar store. They can support a variety of hobbies. Florists can find all sorts of ribbons, floral foam, artificial flowers, wire, tape, and more. Painting hobbyists can find canvases, acrylic and oil paints, small canvases, paint palettes, paint markers, and more.For jewelry makers, dollars stores often sell beads, string, and wire. They also have yarn and knitting needles available for people who love to knit and crochet their own sweaters and scarves.General craft supplies, such as stickers, crayons, Popsicle sticks, colored pipe cleaners, glue, construction paper, and more are also available at dollar stores. These supplies are great for basic crafts as well as fun children’s crafts that will keep kids occup ied and happy on the cheap.DishwareThe  dollar store  has more than disposable dishware â€" they also often sell reusable, dishwasher-friendly glasses, plates, stemware, and utensils. You can stock your entire kitchen on a discount by visiting the  dollar store.The truth is that stemless wine glasses look about the same whether they cost $1 or $10 a piece. Save some money by going with the cheaper option â€" especially if you have people using them who are prone to breaking things.Children’s toysDoes your child really know the difference between a dollar squirt gun and a $10 squirt gun? The difference between $1 bubbles and $5 bubbles? I remember being a child and going to the  dollar store  with my $1 bill and choosing a toy to take home. I purchased dolls, Silly Putty, pool toys, and bubbles, and I loved those toys as much as I loved the expensive toys from pricey toy stores.There’s no need to run up your credit card or go into debt to buy items your children will love; the $1 options will often do just as well. While you might not be able to buy a fancy dollhouse or a child-sized kitchen at the  dollar store, certain kinds of toys will be just the same, like dollar matchbox cars or  coloring books.Avoiding  name brands  is the ultimate money saverEvery dollar counts when you’re budgeting or saving off debt. Being open to buying the off-brand, dollar items can save you a lot in the long run.  Party supplies, disposable picnic supplies, children’s toy, craft items,  office supplies,  cleaning supplies, and more are available on the cheap from discount stores like the  dollar store.Looking for other ways to save money in various areas of your life? Check out our Is it Worth it? series, covering a variety of topics from digital subscriptions to credit card points.

The Body as Image - an Analysis of the Postmodern...

Synopsis, Marketing and Culture The body as image - An analysis of the postmodern characteristics of tattoos in contemporary society Introduction In recent years few terms have been so widely discuss as †postmodernism† in order to define its basic principals. Despite a lack of consensus, most authorities agree that postmodernism represents some kind of reaction to, or departure from, modernism and modernity (Brown 1993). The consumer of the modern society is distinguished by being self-reflexive and rational while the characteristics of the irrational postmodern consumer are hyperreality, fragmentation, reversals of production and consumption, decentring of the subject, paradoxical juxtapositions, and loss of commitment (Firat et†¦show more content†¦The hostility towards generalizations is one of the characteristics of postmodern consumers (Brown 1993). When at work Kim believes it is important to appear clean and presentable which translated into a clothing correlation means dressed in a long-sleeved shirt, but when at private he tends to â€Å"dress-down† for instance wearing leather pants and a T-shirt with his tattoos displayed. The code mixing and switching of style between formal and informal clothes is a strategic masquerade of signs at the intersections of self, society and world (Mick et al, 2004). This could also be describes as a form of self-communication as the tattoos are placed on the body where it can be hidden. â€Å"Several of my private friends also have tattoos, so you could say that I posses two different personalities. I like that I’m free, and someone else, whenever I’m off work†. Here, the style consumption emerges as a creative process of ‘bricolage’ between cultures and differentiation from mainstream marketplace orders (Kjeldgaard 2009) and the tattoo grants members hip of a certain community (Elliot 2004) defined by the communicative discourse of the tattoo. Thus it is not enough to â€Å"purchase† the membership card, the consumer has to maintain their social identity, for the symbol to be perceived accordingly. As theShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesof the Disposable Worker? 35 vii viii CONTENTS 2 2 The Individual Diversity in Organizations 39 Diversity 40 Demographic Characteristics of the U.S. Workforce 41 †¢ Levels of Diversity 42 †¢ Discrimination 42 Biographical Characteristics 44 Age 44 †¢ Sex 46 †¢ Race and Ethnicity 48 †¢ Disability 48 †¢ Other Biographical Characteristics: Tenure, Religion, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity 50 Ability 52 Intellectual Abilities 52 †¢ Physical Abilities 55 †¢ The Role of Disabilities

Criminal Litigation Process - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2688 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Did you like this example? Criminal litigation process This question raises issues of the criminal litigation process as well as evidential issues involved during the questioning of suspects and subsequent litigation. In the interests of proper case analysis, I have decided to deal with the parties in turn by considering the legal issues that arise in relation to each partys case. R v. Sir Joseph Priestley Sir Joseph Priestley has been convicted of indecent exposure based on evidence given by Ms. Amanda Robert. The case has been heard in a Magistrates Court by a sole magistrate. Sir Joseph Priestley now wishes to appeal against the decision of the magistrate. In advising Sir Joseph Priestley, the first issue to be touched upon is the right of appeal in decisions rendered by the magistrates courts. A decision of a magistrates court can be challenged in one of three ways: firstly, by an appeal to the Crown Court; secondly, by an appeal to the High Court by way of case stated by the magistrates for the high courts opinion, or on application to the High Court for judicial review. In this case, Sir Joseph Priestley will be advised to proceed on the basis of an appeal to the High Court by way of case stated. Most appeals by way of case stated are aimed at overturning either a summary acquittal or conviction, as in the case of Sir Joseph Priestley, a conviction. Appeals by way of ca se stated is governed by the Magistrates Court Act 1980 and section 111(1) provides that any person who was a party to any proceeding before a magistrates court or is aggrieved by the conviction of the court may question the proceeding on the ground that it is wrong in law or in excess of the courts jurisdiction. Sir Joseph Priestleys application will be made on the basis that District Judge Asquiths decision is wrong in law. The basis for such a conclusion is premised on the substantial evidential issues arising during the course of the trial. In his summing up, the District Judge alluded to three issues which deserve our attention. The first is his statement regarding the veracity of Ms Robert as a truthful witness. DJ Asquith refers to the witnesss evidence as corroborated as a result of her fragrant appearance. Such a statement is not of itself improper but it gives cause for concern when the only corroboration of the witnesss account of events is her fragrant appearanc e. In this case, the appropriate method of corroboration might have been through other witnesses who saw the offence committed or through witnesses who know the accused or the victim and can testify as to their veracity for the truth. The issue here is simple à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the victims evidence has not been tested and it is unsafe to convict Sir Joseph Priestley based on this untested evidence. Secondly, as to the issue of Sir Joseph Priestleys defence of mistaken identity, DJ Asquith suggests in his speech that the burden of proving this defence lies on the accused à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" that is clearly not the case. The general rule with regards to the burden of proof in criminal cases is that the burden is on the prosecution to prove the defendants guilt beyond reasonable doubt. There is a statutory exception to the rule which is contained in section 101 of the Magistrates Court Act 1980 which basically surmises that in a summary trial where the defendant relies for a def ence on any statutory exception, exemption, provision or qualification to the statutory offence charged, the burden of proving that exception is on the defendant. In this case, Sir Joseph Priestleys defence is not an exception or provision forming part of the offence charged. It is simply a defence of mistaken identity to the offence charged and which forms part of the case that the prosecution has to prove. While Sir Joseph Priestley had the evidential burden of raising the defence, it was for the prosecution to disprove such a defence. It was clearly wrong for DJ Asquith to cast the burden of proving the mistaken identity on Sir Joseph Priestley and this clearly provides a basis upon which an appeal can be sought. Thirdly, with respect to the Judges reference to Sir Joseph Priestleys refusal to discuss the facts of the case during police interrogation, we must consider the effect of section 34 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 ( CJPOA) which deals with the defendants failure to mention facts when questioned or charged. In such a case where the defendant has been questioned and he has not responded to those questions, the tribunal of fact may draw such inferences as appear proper from the defendants refusal to mention those facts which he later seeks to rely on. However this present case must be distinguished from the classic section 34 cases such as R v Condron and R v Cowan because Sir Joseph Priestley clearly stated during interview that it was a case of mistaken identity. Assuming that it truly was a case of mistaken identity, then there would have been nothing further to discuss during interview and the judge would be wrong in drawing the inferences from Sir Joseph Priestleys interview with the police. Another point which must be discussed is the fact that despite alluding to the defence of mistaken identity during police interrogation, the police did not conduct further investigations to enquire whether anyone else on t he train might have witnessed the crime. One would imagine that travelling from Buckinghamshire everyday to Neasden, Sir Joseph Priestley would have established a travel pattern which would yield the possibility of discovering regular travel companions who might know about Sir Joseph Priestley and whether he has ever engaged in such an act. The inability of the police to yield additional evidence to support the Ms Roberts case seems to be particularly detrimental in proving the case against Sir Joseph Priestley. It would therefore seem that Sir Joseph Priestley has a good chance of overturning the conviction on appeal. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Criminal Litigation Process" essay for you Create order R v. Mr. Harry Collingwood and Mr. Fred Vaughan The facts reveal that both Fred and Harry have been convicted of the crimes of murder and conspiracy to cause explosions. They now seek to appeal against their convictions. The issue raised here is whether the conviction is safe in the light of the evidential shortcomings displayed during the criminal litigation process. The general rule with respect to appeals from the crown court is encapsulated within section 2 of the Criminal Appeals Act 1995. This section states that a person convicted on indictment may appeal on the single ground that the conviction is unsafe. In the case of R v. Chalkley, the Court considered the definition of unsafe and suggested that it was more or less a subjective question of whether there still remained a lurking doubt in the minds of people which made them wonder whether an injustice has been done. There are a number of issues which must be discussed in the light of the conclusion that the conviction appears to be unsafe. The first issue relate s to the procedure followed during the interrogation of both Fred and Harry. The facts reveal that during questioning, both parties were denied access to a solicitor. The general rule with respect to rights of suspects to legal advice is contained within section 58 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE). Section 58 provides that a person who is arrested and held in custody at a police station has a right, at his request, to consult privately with a solicitor at any time. Furthermore, Article 6(3) of the ECHR requires that consultation with a legal adviser must take place out of the hearing of a third party. Fred and Harry therefore ought to have been informed of their right to see a solicitor upon arriving at the police station, and they also had the right to consult with solicitors without the presence of Inspector Lewis or any other third party. The refusal of the right to consult with a solicitor is clearly grounds for the exclusion of the evidence obtained as a result of the denial of the accuseds right. The second issue relates to the refusal by the police to allow both Fred and Harry inform a family member of their whereabouts. Under PACE, section 56(1) the suspect has the right to have a friend or family member informed of the arrest. However this right may be delayed in certain circumstances. One of such circumstances might be where the officer has reasonable grounds to believe that such friend or family member may interfere with the evidence connected with an offence, thus hampering the police investigation. It would therefore appear that in this case the police might have been justified in refusing both Fred and Harry the right to inform family members of their whereabouts. The third issue here relates to the apparent physical threats made by Inspector Lewis to both Fred and Harry and the manner and condition under which the confessions were made. The threats and the manner of eliciting the confessions can be said to am ount to oppression. Oppression is defined in section 76(8) of PACE as torture, inhuman or degrading treatment, and the use or threat of violence. In 1968, Lord MacDermott commented to the Bentham Club that: oppressive questioning is questioning which by its very nature excites hopes or fears or so affects the mind of the suspect that his will crumbles and he speaks when otherwise he would have remained silent. While PACE does not define any of the three concepts of torture, inhuman or degrading treatment, one can look to the decision of the European Court of Human Rights in The Greek Case where the commission defined inhuman treatment as such treatment as deliberately causing severe suffering, mental or physical and degrading treatment as treatment which grossly humiliates the individual before others or drives him to act against his will or conscience. Furthermore in the case if Republic of Ireland v. United Kingdom the court was concerned with certain techniques of interr ogation used upon suspects in detention which included wall standing, hooding, deprivation of sleep, food and drink. In this case, the court held that the techniques amounted to inhuman treatment because they caused physical and mental suffering and also led to acute psychiatric disturbances during interrogation. Relying on the above decisions, it can be said that the station house treatment of both Fred and Harry amounted to inhuman treatment and the nature of the questioning was clearly oppressive. In the light of this fact, the next logical question to be decided falls to be: Of what evidential value is the confession purported to have been signed by both Fred and Harry. Having determined that the confession was the product of oppressive questioning, we now turn to look at section 76 of PACE. Firstly as with all confessions made to the police, if the prosecution wishes to rely on it, they must satisfy the rule of admissibility that is in section 76(2). In this case, the Judge should have proceeded to hear issues as to the admissibility of the confession in a separate proceeding known as the voir dire, or the trial within the trial and then deciding as to whether or not the evidence ought to be allowed in. Failing to do this, the judge clearly breached the procedural rules relating to the admission of evidence and this clearly presents a ground for challenging the conviction. The next issue concerns the joint trial of Fred and Harry, where both defendants rely on different defences. What exactly do I mean? Well we need to examine what section 76(1) of PACE states. It states that a confession made by an accused is admissible against him. This shows that it is only admissible against its maker and not against any other person including a co-accused who may be named in the confession. In this case, the learned judge has not used his discretion to order separate trials, give a limiting warning to the jury or sought to edit the confession so tha t it does not implicate Harry Collingwood, whose defence is that he was not present at the time of the bombings, but was in china on vacation. Once again, such flagrant disregard for criminal procedure by Mr. Justice Jeffreys lends credible support to the conclusion that the criminal procedural system was so flawed as to render the convictions unsafe. The final issue to be touched upon relates to the unusual nature of the Judges summing up to the Jury. As it has been noted in Blackstones Criminal Practice 2008, errors resulting the judges summing up are clearly capable of rendering a conviction unsafe. It is therefore necessary to carefully dissect the summing up in this case to see where the judge erred. The first issue to be raised with the summing up is that of the burden of proof. While the Judge makes mention of the fact that the burden of proof is on the prosecution, he fails to mention the standard to which the burden must be proven. Secondly, the Judges statement s that the Jury ought to disregard Ms Lopezs testimony without any proper basis for its dismissal is clearly erroneous in the light of the fact that the law clearly states that the judge has a general duty to remind the jury of the evidence, and as part of that duty. He has got to remind them of the defence case à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Ms. Lopezs alibi of Mr. Collingwood forms part of the defence case for Mr. Collingwood and the judge ought not to have made light of the fact that love is blind and can lead people to do silly things which clearly forms a bias against Ms. Lopezs testimony. Overall, the judges summing up was clearly biased and in favour of the Prosecution. The judges statement that the prosecution evidence is best corroborated by the jurys knowledge of the world is clearly erroneous and devoid of proper reasoning or sound legal knowledge. Any corroboration that the jury might need ought to have been in the evidence presented, and not in any external factors such as their knowledge of the world. In the case of Berrada, the judge referred to defence allegations which suggested that police had fabricated evidence as really monstrous and wicked. On Appeal, it was decidedly stated that in directing the jury, the judge has a duty to state matters impartially, clearly and logically and not inappropriately to inflate evidence to sarcastic and inappropriate comment. Similarly in R v. Marr, the judges dismissive attitude towards a large volume of character evidence had been held as grounds for having the conviction quashed. Although in the case of ODonnell, it was held that the judge should be allowed some leeway in commenting upon the evidence and in the case of Canny, it was held that a conviction will be in danger only when the judge crosses the line into blatant unfairness and apparent pro-prosecution bias. Applying the above cases to the present scenario, it is my opinion that the comments of the judge, during summing up, do clearly cro ss the line into blatant unfairness and prosecution bias as demonstrated in Canny. The judge could not be described as having been fair in his summing up, and if even allowed some lee way in commenting upon the summing up, his comments could not be described as harmless, but at best, were designed to perpetrate his politically minded agenda which showed a heavy disdain for political activists. However he failed to note that the bench is not the place to perpetrate such an agenda and that he has to remain neutral at all times during the course of the trial. The judge clearly did not achieve this level of fairness and as such the conviction of both Fred and Harry must be said to be unsafe and dangerous and warrants an immediate appeal. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) Peter Murphy, Blackstones, Criminal Practice, 2007, Blackstone Press. 2) Roderick Munday, Evidence, 2005, Third edition, Oxford University Press 3) Ian Dennis, The Law of Evidence, 2003, Second Edition, Sweet Maxwell. 4) Adrian Keane, The Modern Law of Evidence, 2005, Sixth Edition, Lexis Nexis 5) Peter Hungerford-Welch, Criminal Litigation Sentencing, 2004, Sixth Edition, Routledge Cavendish.

How Feasible Is Long Term Sustainability Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

It seems improbable that it will of all time be possible to build a fixed set of societal and economic agreements that would be for good sustainable in environmental and other footings, given that the universe itself alterations and evolves. Speciess develop, flourish and perish, the composing of the ambiance alterations, and the dynamically-interrelated web of relationships that constitutes the planetary ecology bit by bit transforms over clip, thereby altering the ecological parametric quantities within which the homo species has to run. The development of biological and ecological systems on this planet was and is a contingent and heuristic procedure. We will write a custom essay sample on How Feasible Is Long Term Sustainability Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Literature Review The Earth is about four and a half billion old ages old, someplace between one one-fourth and one half of the age of the existence. It is the lone planet in the universe presently known to back up life. Life began on this planet about four billion old ages ago, so the narrative of life on Earth is merely a small shorter than that of the planet itself. ( Silvertown, 1990 ) The human species is of comparatively recent beginning. Worlds have existed for some 0.005 per cent of the clip during which there has been biological activity on the planet, a ratio about tantamount to one twenty-four hours in a 55 twelvemonth lifetime. The initial divergency from other apes occurred some 7 million old ages ago. The precursor Australopithecus lived from 7 to 2 million old ages ago. Homo Erectus evolved, via Homo Habilis, some 1.7 million old ages ago. Our immediate ascendants, Homo Sapiens, evolved from Homo Erectus perchance every bit small as 200,000 old ages ago. From about 100,000 old ages ago Homo Sapiens occupied parts of Africa, and the heater parts of Europe and Asia. It is non clear at what phase we became a cultural species. It has been suggested that there is grounds for cultural behavior from as far back as 60,000 or even 100,000 old ages ago. However, the earliest unambiguous grounds for sophisticated cultural behavior, including a engineering of tools and arms, entombment of the dead, birthrate worship, pictures, sculptures and so on day of the months from some 40,000 old ages ago, as modern adult male, Homo Sapiens Sapiens, spread across Europe and replaced Neanderthal Man ( now by and large considered to be a member of the species Homo Sapiens ) . Humans reached Australia some 35,000 old ages ago, North America possibly 20,000 old ages ago, and had spread across most of the ice-free universe by the terminal of the last ice age, some 15,000 to 12,000 old ages ago. The first domestication of workss and animate beings happened some 12,000 old ages ago, and there were farming communities in assorted parts of the universe by some 8,000 old ages ago ( Moore, 1992 ) . Some of these small towns grew into the first little metropoliss some 6,000 old ages ago. In comparing to the continuance of life on Earth, hence, modern-day human civilization is of really recent beginning. Human existences are destructing the biological diverseness of the planet with the heedlessly expansive moving ridges of a sovereign or a lunatic. The current extinction crisis is determining up as the worst in 65 million old ages. Unless ecological sustainability is valued along with economic development, the effects will be ruinous. More than 99 per cent of all species that of all time lived are nonextant. Speciess have really varied lifetimes, and while the bluish green algae have been here for approximately 3 billion old ages, the typical lifetime is really much shorter. The possible lifetime of the human species is unknown, but non infinite. However, premature extinction would be too bad. The alterations in the planetary ecology indicate that we need to go more cognizant of the effects of our actions, and to get down to pull off our personal businesss more consciously than has by and large been the instance in the yesteryear. This may intend that it will be necessary to germinate new political and economic constructions and decision-making mechanisms in order to react to these emerging planetary environmental demands. However, as indicated earlier, we may hold to make so from a place of comparative political and economic instability. This is likely to be a ambitious procedure. Many bing organizational, political, and economic constructs and constructions are likely now inappropriate and unhelpful. It is improbable that the necessary constructions for international coordination, for illustration, will be evolved without some grade of organizational and political transmutation. This in bend is improbable to go on without a parallel development of the cultural and psychological constructs on which political and economic constructions are finally based. This is why any analysis, to be equal, must include the relevant environmental, political, economic and socio-cultural factors. The sustainability of the human species can merely be defined, finally, at the degree of the interaction between the full composite of human systems and all straight implicated environmental systems. To understand sustainability therefore requires some apprehension of the behavior of systems in general and of homo and environmental systems in peculiar. There are a figure of definitions of sustainability presently in usage. There is some consensus that a passage to a sustainable manner of life agencies taking stairss to seek to cut down the hazard that environmental and related jobs will earnestly impact or endanger the human species at some future clip, and thereby to guarantee that future coevalss have a sensible chance of a worthwhile being. The inquiry of sustainability is, hence, one of enlightened opportunism. It requires happening ways in which the human species can populate on this planet indefinitely, without compromising its hereafter. All species interact, alteration, and co-evolve with their environment. The human species is no exclusion. We are sole, nevertheless, in our ability to modify consciously some elements of the form of our interaction with the environment. It is no longer possible, given the current extent of human activity, to avoid doing these direction determinations as to how we wish to interact with the planet. For illustration, a determination non to cull the Scots ruddy cervid, given that of import natural marauders no longer be, is now a direction determination, merely every bit much as a determination to cull the cervid. Every substitution of all determinations of this type has ecological effects. Similarly, a determination to ignore information on current planetary ecological tendencies is a direction determination, every bit much as is the determination to try to accomplish some peculiar human-ecological balance. While many would now hold that there is a demand to happen ways of life that are sustainable, the treatment to day of the month has yet to bring forth a cardinal account that spans the issues and provides a consistent ground and way for societal alteration. The writers believe that the best chance for an effectual response to the planetary crisis lies in developing an analysis that can offer both ; one that can both warrant and inform a long-run, incorporate and consistent scheme for alteration. Such an attack is somewhat unfamiliar in the UK. This is because Britain has a general philosophical ethos that is more empirical and musician than the mainland European rational tradition. Pragmatism and practicality are valued, abstract analysis is distrusted. This ethos underlies a state of affairs in which specific and concrete responses to jobs are valued ( as bespeaking pragmatism and practicality ) while more abstract assessments ( which might take to more cardinal and comprehensive solutions ) are frequently seen as being less utile. ( Spash and Clayton, 1995 ) The interaction between worlds and their environment can be thought of as traveling the planetal system along assorted axes at the same time. If this happens at a rate that exceeds the rate at which other systems can accommodate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the hold factor with which the stage infinite part that defines sustainability can travel to follow the point at which the planet is positioned in stage infinite, so these other systems will go nonextant. The species extinction rate therefore provides a partial step of the rate of motion through stage infinite. Global heating is likely to supply a figure of illustrations of this consequence. Vegetation distribution typically shifts some 200 kilometers towards the poles with each 1 A ; deg ; C rise in temperature. The forest migration rates at the terminal of the last glacial period were some 20 to 100 kilometers per century. However, the jutting rate of planetary heating will be possibly 100 times faster than the rate of warming at that clip. Many tree species will be unable to migrate at the necessary velocity, which will in bend affect a big figure of dependent species. Multi-dimensionality is present in the construct of ‘primary environmental attention ‘ ( PEC ) , which is obviously related to sustainable enlargement and has become far and broad bing among development administrations in their attempts to set sustainable development into public presentation. PEC is classified as ‘the diversified for development promotions in the synergistic part between economic, environmental and societal systems ‘ ( Holmberg and Sandbrook 1992:31 ) . Its ‘essential components ‘ are: Associating and fulfilling of indispensable needs-the economic end ; Safety and best usage of the environment-the environmental end ; And authorizing of groups and communities-the societal end. Environmental sustainability needs the saving of imperative maps. Each of these rules has related with it a sustainability theoretical account ( e.g. stable clime, sustainable crop, critical burden of pollution for an ecosystem, criterions of air or H2O quality to support human wellness ) and a figure of likely markers of environmental force per unit area ( e.g. discharges ) or environmental province ( e.g. concentration of pollutant ) to demo whether the criterion is at present being acted in conformity with with. Economic sustainability depends on the care of the capital stock. ( Daly, 1990, 1-6 ) Decision It seems improbable that it will of all time be possible to build a fixed set of societal and economic agreements that would be for good sustainable in environmental and other footings, given that the universe itself alterations and evolves. Speciess develop, flourish and perish, the composing of the ambiance alterations, and the dynamically-interrelated web of relationships that constitutes the planetary ecology bit by bit transforms over clip, thereby altering the ecological parametric quantities within which the homo species has to run. The development of biological and ecological systems on this planet was and is a contingent and heuristic procedure. It is improbable that the visual aspect of the human species, for illustration, was an inevitable result of the procedure of development, merely as the continued endurance of the human species is in no sense guaranteed. There have been a figure of points in the history of this planet at which events could likely hold taken a differen t bend, and at that place will likely be many more such points in future. It is impossible to extinguish all hazard in such a contingent procedure. It is likely more accurate, hence, to believe in footings of cut downing instead than extinguishing the overall hazard to which the human species might be exposed, and of cut downing the figure and impact of activities agreed to be unsustainable instead than taking for a definable province called sustainability. In order to make this, it will likely be necessary to command peculiar activities, by curtailing actions, for illustration, that place undue force per unit area on peculiarly sensitive or critical ecological maps. The key to accomplishing sustainable development, hence, is to understand and determine the interaction between complex adaptative natural systems and soft socio-economic systems in order to guarantee that we ever remain within our survival part at the intersection of the survival parts of all the systems on which we are dependent ( Bergstrom, 1990, 215-228 ) . Of class, the nature of this interaction between natural and socio-economic systems is itself invariably germinating, as species regenerate or become nonextant, resources are exhausted or new militias discovered, societal and economic systems expand and prostration and new engineerings are developed, disseminated and superseded. Thus both jobs and solutions are dynamic. How to cite How Feasible Is Long Term Sustainability Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

The Color of Water and Malcolm free essay sample

Abraham Maslow’s theory of â€Å"Hierarchy of Needs† consists of 5 things humans need. From top to bottom, top being the more complex needs and the bottom the more basic needs is; Self-Actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, and physiological. Self-actualization is the level of need that pertains to what a person’s full potential is and realizing that potential. It is broken up as morality, spontaneity, and lack of prejudice. Based on the two texts I read, The Color of Water by James McBride and The Autobiography of Malcolm X as told by Alex Haley, I consider both James McBride and Malcolm X â€Å"self-actualized† men to a certain extent. James McBride is a â€Å"self-actualized† man to a certain extent because throughout his life he had a white Jewish mother and he never judged, hated, or feared her; he had nothing but love for her. Out of the 3 main things I believe that make someone â€Å"self-actualized† this expresses his lack of prejudice and that must have took a lot out of him to not judge her even though everywhere they went people would always stare as they saw his white mother with black children following her and calling his mother names such as â€Å"nigger lover†. We will write a custom essay sample on The Color of Water and Malcolm or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The reason why I say Malcolm X is a â€Å"self-actualized† man to a certain extent is because in Chapter 2 of his autobiography, Mascot, Malcolm is sent to a reform school where he says something that gets stuck in my mind. He said â€Å"I don’t care how nice one is to you; the thing that you must always remember is that almost never does he really see you as he sees himself, as he sees his own kind. He may stand with you through thin, but not thick; when the chips are down, you’ll find that as fixed in him as his bone structure is sometimes subconscious conviction that he’s better than anybody black. Malcolm X isn’t directly saying it but from this you can tell he doesn’t hate white people but he does have a dislike for them. Prejudice is defined as an unfavorable opinion or feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason and based on this definition Malcolm X lacks prejudice because he didn’t just dislike white pe ople out of blue it took him years before he decided he disliked them. The next step in becoming â€Å"self-actualized† is spontaneity. Both Malcolm X and James McBride expressed spontaneity. In chapter 14 of The Color of Water, James is sent to stay with his sister Jack in Kentucky. James easily adapted to life in Kentucky, he would hang out with Jack’s husband and his friends on what they called the â€Å"Coner†. James became so comfortable in Kentucky that he got a job pumping gas. James says â€Å"†¦I stayed there three summers straight, always managing to get tossed from summer school in New York City just to get sent down there. † To me this shows that James was so spontaneous that not only did he adapt to life in Kentucky but he favored it over life in New York. In The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Malcolm also expresses his spontaneity when his mother breaks down from his father’s death and raising so many children by herself when he is sent to live at the Gohannas’ home. Then Malcolm is sent to a detention home for putting a thumbtack on his teacher’s chair. Malcolm says when his time to go to reform school came up â€Å"two or three times-it was always ignored†¦I was glad and grateful. I knew it was Mrs. Swerlin’s doing. I didn’t want to leave. This shows that even with being away from his mother and family Malcolm was happy and adapted so well to life at the detention home he felt he didn’t have a reason to leave. Another step in becoming â€Å"self-actualized† is morality. From what I’ve read in The Color of Water James lacks morality. In chapter 14 James admits to smoking weed and drinking. James said â€Å"My new friends and I shoplifted. We broke into cars. We snuck into nearby Conrail/Long Island Rail Road tracks and broke into freight cars, robbing them of bicycles, televisions sets and wine. James even admits to stealing purses even after his own mothers purse was stolen right in front of him and he says â€Å"I had no feelings. I had smothered them. † Without a doubt James had no morality, at least not in his teenage years. The reason why I keep referring to chapter 14 isn’t because it’s the only chapter I’ve read, but because I feel as though this is a very important chapter that gives you a clear view of what James was going through in his teenage years and how these events made him grow up into the man he is today. When Malcolm X was young he lacked morals like most of us. It wasn’t until Malcolm was arrested and sentenced to 10 years in prison when became a Muslim and adopted morals. In chapter 2 of Malcolm X’s autobiography Malcolm attempts to be a boxer but ends up getting beaten by the same white boy twice. Malcolm says â€Å"A lot of times in these later years since I became a Muslim, I’ve thought back to that fight and reflected that it was Allah’s work to stop me: I might have wound up punchy. This shows me that ever since Malcolm became a Muslim he no longer believed in physical violence. Supposedly there are six steps in becoming â€Å"self-actualized† I chose to focus on morality, lack of prejudice, and spontaneity because they stood out the most to me and seemed like excellent topics to focus on. The other steps are creativity, problem solving and acceptance of facts and both men have these accomplished these skills as well. When Malcolm finally went to school he was told by his teacher he could never be a lawyer and he accepted that because in those times it was rare for an African American to have a good job. Malcolm believed the only way to solve segregation was complete separation of the races, which I believe expresses his creativity as well as his problem solving skills. James on the other hand is creative because when he visited his mother’s home town he sat down in a restaurant and was able to imagine the town before the restaurant was there. James accepted that he had a white mother which shows his acceptance of facts and finally since James didn’t know much about his mother’s childhood he decided to visit her old neighborhood to learn more about his mother and family which shows his problem solving skills. The reason why I said James McBride and Malcolm X are â€Å"self-actualized† to a certain extent is because James lacks prejudice, has spontaneity, but lacks morality. Malcolm on the other hand is prejudice to certain extent, has spontaneity, and has morality.

buy custom The Western Civilization essay

buy custom The Western Civilization essay Based on a faith to progress and expand global trade, 18th century was dominated by a philosophical movement that made use of reason to devalue the previous use of accepted doctrines and tradition. The movement was marked by rapid advances in European scientific, mathematic, philosophy and political thoughts. These massive changes of the 18th century shed light to the coming of a technological age and artistic advance. The movement ushered in the discovery age when there was massive rise of the global, European Empires. This was the enlightenment and the scientific revolution that has highly helped shape the modern world. There were factors that led to the occurrence of the massive changes in the 18th century. Spread of knowledge, ideas and information in scientific fields was a key to the revolution. New learned society emerged from the work of science. The new societies had scientists who had journals that enabled them to share ideas. Societies had the urge to get learned in order. The new societies appeared in Italy, France and England. They valued scientific research and committees were created to oversee the technological improvements for the industry. Scientific journals led to cooperation and educated the public who had an interest in the new science. The new science offered new techniques of exploiting resources with an aim of increasing average profit. Through scientific revolution, most followed traditions and doctrines were devalued. Contributions from individuals, sharing of ideas through scientific journals, and building on the other scientists efforts led to the emergence of the new scie nce and its basic principles. In the 18th century, there were innovations in art, music and literature. Opera and classical music rose during this period. The stories of the past centuries and the medieval romances contributed to the development of novel. Philosophers took the responsibilities of writing history, and they devalued claims of Gods role in history. The innovations resulted in a high culture of an artistic world dominated by educated and wealthy people. Increased food production was another factor that resulted to the massive changes. The target was to secure more farmland, increase the lands yield, healthy and more livestock and a favorable climate. Abandoning old open field system led to the increase in the amount of land being utilized. Lrger number of animals was maintained since the utilized lands provided winter fodder for the animals. Animals provided manure for fertilizing fields to produce higher yields. Meat from the numerous livestock increased in the diet of European. English led in the e fforts of adopting new techniques during the agricultural revolution of the eighteenth century. There was a need for credit expansion in the 18th century that fostered the establishment of banks. This was also contributed to the low amount of gold and silver supply from the 17th century. Banking offered paper currencies, allowed people to invest in colonial trading companies and offered loans at low interest rates. There was a need to embrace industrial revolution to exhibit growth in average income and population. Since most people were involved in agriculture in the past years, the average income and the population was limited by famine, weather, war and diseases. As a result to the changes and industrialization revolution, sanitation improved, canals and roads were built in Western Europe. Food transport improved, and it resulted to a population growth. The changes were fueled by a need to inflate profits and explode the population. High population provided labor in the textile industry. Britain and France produced and exported cloth. Machines were used in the industries dur ing the second half of the century. Need for reforms in politics led to a revolution from traditional forms of governments to a system that are evident even today. In French revolution, there was a push for voting by head where each delegate was entitled one vote. A new constitution governing the colony was drafted. To mark a triumph of liberty, there were attacks and capturing of royal armories. Political revolution resulted in a national convention composed of lawyers, professionals and those who owned properties. Big numbers of the deputies were people whose age were on average forty-five and included a handful of artisans. Due to the distrust to the king and his activities, the convention urged for the abolishment of the monarchy and establishment of a republic. Revolutionary army of unprecedented size was created that would function to protect the created republic from foreign enemies. Central government appointed committee that worked as agents to educate the republic on the war emergency measures. The new formed government also provided economic controls by establiishing a system of food price control and cloth supplies. The massive changes and revolutions resulted in the growth of nations and technology to a size that made countries try and take over other peoples countries. Conflicts erupted from the expansion of European Empire which resulted in the drawing up of borders as well as falling of some empires. The succession within the empire resulted to the division of the colonies, and this altered the European balance of power. Republicans attacked the kings monarchy due to mistrust in his activities. The colonies used the empires to improve their economic status as well as promote mercantilism. Rivalries in trade developed among the European powers and this caused strain. The greater empires had a conflict over fishing rights as well as a fur trade. The powers developed differences in the 18th century that led to the emergence of wars. An example is the Great Northern War. Revolutions led to the expansion of empires that later caused conflicts. The conflicts, which were as, a result of political problems, religious, demographic and economic crisis saw a wide spread fall in politics, economics and society. There was also some general crisis resulting from intellectual and religious changes. Several European powers fought in the War for Spanish succession. The wars and conflicts proved some empires to be greater than others. An example is the Great Northern War that saw the establishment of Russia as a greater power in Europe. French monarchy received criticism and lost its privileged status as the Third Estate marched towards liberty, equality and fraternity. This ultimately led to the rise of Napoleon who was a representative of the first military dictatorship. American and French revolutions were related. Both the colonies had a struggle against monarchial and aristocratic powers. This resulted in the creation of the greatest possible freedom. Despite both the revolutionary wars being relatively small, those conflicts and wars caused heavy economic losses in the colonies. The war strained the colonies, but they withstood the challenge. The revolutions resulted in a creation of newly independent United States while French revolution resulted in the overthrow of its monarchial government. This greatly impressed the people because of the ideal of freedom and democracy they experienced after the revolutions. Buy custom The Western Civilization essay

You Signed Up for a Conference †Now What

You Signed Up for a Conference – Now What You paid your conference fee and reserved your motel room. Now what? Youre finally going to a writers conference, but now that you think about it, you arent sure what to do once you get there. First, make sure this is a conference that suits your needs. If you are unpublished and seeking agents or publishers, then dont stick to a conference that focuses on craft, and vice versa. Make sure the majority of the classes fit your goals.Second, while youre researching this conference, dig deeper and research the teachers, agents, and so on. What about these people merits sticking them up in front of a class? If you see teachers that really havent published much, think twice. Anybody can teach. You want teachers who have published and performed, as well. Third, participate in at least one critique or pitch session. Unless you are green as a gourd and just dipping your toe in the water, you have a piece youve been working on. Toss it into the fray and see what feedback you get. They might rip it up, but thats okay. You show youve got guts and you walk away much more educated than you were before. Fourth, plan your agenda. Dont wait until you get there to decide what you want to attend. They publish that schedule ahead of time for a reason. Map out your days and evenings to include the questions you want to ask and the goals you hope to achieve. Get the most of your sessions. Fifth, meet at least one new person per session. Speak to those at your table or seated around you. Theres a wealth of networking opportunity available to you at a conference, and that networking might be the biggest plus you come home with. Â  Sixth, plan your clothes. Sounds like a woman thing, right? Wrong. Youll be sitting for long periods of time. You might have to trek up and down stairs or from one end of the motel to the other to make classes. Look sharp but make it comfy. Throw in a scarf, the boots, or those special pieces of jewelry. Give the person you meet something to remember you Seventh, pack your writing stuff to include: = two copies of your WIP (just in case) = business cards (dont say WRITER/AUTHOR on it and avoid Vistaprint templates) = notebook Youll not only take notes, but youll dabble on your WIP as these productive ideas come to you in class. Ive rewritten chapters in class before as the teacher led me to a new concept. = name tag Theyll give you one, but consider having a permanent, professional one made. I have two: one with a magnet and one with a pin, so that they can go on anything I wear. People remember tags, and if yours is unique, theyll remember you more. = one-sheets See this article on one-sheets. These are marvelous if you are pitching and speak volumes about your creativity and professionalism. https://fundsforwriters.com/something-to-remember-you- Before the last day, take a moment to go over your notes and goals and determine what youre lacking, then approach the teacher, writer or agent while you can. Walk up and ask the question. Thats why they are there, and what you paid for. You can do this, and you can do it better if you go prepared.

For or Against Governing Early Childhood Education through play by Jo Personal Statement

For or Against Governing Early Childhood Education through play by Jo AilWood - Personal Statement Example games, they acquire knowledge on how to control their emotions, and how to transform the large, mystifying world events into a little, controllable status. Play also enables children to improve on their social skills as they assign themselves certain responsibilities and resources. Despite the significance of play in early childhood learning processes, I believe there are some pitfalls to play that need to known to the learning fraternity. I think the significance of the circumstances under which a play is executed has not been anybody’s concern, even as more people continue to advocate for the governmentality of early childhood education through play. Current learning-based plays are only looked upon from the positive perspectives rather than from all sides to ascertain its real significance. Ailwood avers that play in early childhood education has been mired in more rhetoric than tangible results. In most cases, play has fallen short of equipping children with the required skills expected out of such activities (291). Childhood play has been found to be boring, and usually isolating for some children. Additionally, play has been largely entertaining, rather than enhancing the skills of the participants. Play also reduces the role of a teacher to merely keeping an eye on those engaging in bad games and maintaining the hygiene of children who take part in such activity. In light of the valorisation of play, brought about by divisions along social lines, play does not contribute to the unity and social diversity required in learning

Compare the influence of the revolutionary leadership on the french Essay

Compare the influence of the revolutionary leadership on the french and Russian revolutions - Essay Example This discourse seeks to compare the influence of revolutionary leadership on French and Russian Revolutions. An analysis of the French Revolution clearly shows that the revolution occurred mainly as a result of poor leadership though the economy also played a part in its establishment. In this respect, historians reveal that in the 1780s just before the beginning of the French Revolution, the leaders of the country made a terrible mistake by allocating a large portion of the budget to finance the lavish estate of King Louis XVI at Versailles (Lucas 1973, p. 86). Surprisingly they did this despite the fact that many French citizens were suffering as the majority were not able to put food on the table. At the same time, the leaders allowed the country to operate without a central bank and paper currency and utilized antiquated tax system that only taxed the poor who had no money with which to buy even food. The continued poor leadership demonstrated by the top leaders of the country angered the French poor comprising mainly of the peasants who started to protest against poor leadership. The angered peasants reportedly invaded the Bastille in search of guns to use against the oppressive leaders. The invasion of Bastille resulted in a revolt against the king all over France. The revolt continued throughout 1789, resulting in the overthrow of King Louis (Lefebvre 2005, p. 34). It was after his toppling that the French established a democratic government. The Declaration of the Rights of Man doctrine was established after that, serving as the ground for the revolutionary French leaders. The French Revolution also resulted in the establishment of a government consisting of three arms, namely the executive, judiciary, and legislature. Under the new system of government, the executive was still headed by the King though the King only served as a figurehead with no real power. Similarly, the chaotic Russian

Interest theory of rights, a summary and evaluation

Interest theory of rights, a summary and evaluation Theoretical Foundation of Human Rights: What is the interest theory of rights? Does this theory fail to answer any important questions? â€Å"If the concept of human rights is universal, that is, possesses a validity which is good for all places and for all times, then it is apparent that there is a significant disparity in the way in which these rights are concretised from place to place and from time to time. While the idea of human rights may have a discernible homogeneity, perhaps derived from some kind of natural law theory or social theory, it is nonetheless clear that the implementation of these rights by states lacks a corresponding identity.† (Davidson, 1993:89) Both international relations and moral theories feature prominent debate on the concept and the purpose of human rights yet there appears little by way of consensus with regards to what these rights mean, where the judicial boundaries of action and inaction meet or how to implement the utilitarian principles first adopted by the United Nations in response to the humanitarian horrors witnessed during World War Two. The crux of this theoretical problem resides in the evolution of the concept of human rights – an evolution that has worked in tandem with the evolution of liberal democracy in the West since 1945 when â€Å"Western tradition required, as a response to totalitarianism, a reassertion of individual liberty, and for that liberty to be protected by an international law rather than diplomacy.† (Robertson, 2006:29) By this we mean to say that whereas historical notions of human rights were underpinned by the spectre of the state and the state’s ability to def end persecuted minorities, contemporary notions of human rights have moved beyond the confines of the state and the public sector to incorporate the private citizen and the defence of his or her individual human rights (as opposed to the collective human rights of a people or a state). This is a reflection of the shifting paradigms that have affected liberal democracy at the dawn of the twenty first century where the merging of the public and the private sectors has created a moral, judicial and ideological black hole into which uncertainty and indecision have stepped. The following essay seeks to look at the ways in which this political sense of uncertainty has pervaded the ideological sphere of human rights where according to Saladin Meckled-Garcia and Basak Cali (2005:10-30) the human rights ideal has become ‘lost in translation.’ We propose to look in particular at the ‘interest’ theory of rights, analysing the ways in which it has helped to shed new light on the topic of human rights in general while at the same time highlighting its theoretical flaws. A conclusion will be sought that attempts to underscore the link between rights, indecision and inaction particularly when we view the issue from an international perspective. Before we can begin, though, we need to offer a definition of the interest theory of rights. The interest theory of rights was first proposed by Bentham (1987) who argued that a person has a distinctive human right when others have duties which protect one of that person’s interests. Thus, viewed from the perspective of the interest theory of rights, â€Å"human rights takes their role to be to protect a person’s basic interests.† (Pogge, 2007:186) This constitutes the most fundamental interpretation of human rights within the liberal democratic ideological framework alluded to in the introduction, falling within the theoretical parameters of what Meckled-Garcia and Cali (2005:10) refer to as the ‘normative rights model’ (NRM) which â€Å"identifies features or aspects of our humanity which contribute to our well being and which are vulnerable to the actions of others.† The interest theory of rights therefore seeks to safeguard these features or aspects of our humanity by protecting a citizen’s rights against wrongdoing from another citizen within the same social, political and judicial framework. That it is to say that if, for instance, it is in one’s interests to not to be physically assaulted then, as far as the interest theory is concerned, it is the responsibility of both the individual and the state to ensure that this does not happen lest the basic interests of another individual be impinged upon. Moreover, there is, as Meckled-Garcia and Cali (2005:11) declare, â€Å"no principled difference is made between individual and collective.† This is in direct contrast to international human rights law (IHRL) where only the state can impinge upon the basic human rights of individuals or groups of individuals living within that sovereign state. As a consequence, we can see that the first and most prominent drawback to the interest theory of rights is that there exists such a wide divergence between theory and practice; between the interpretation of the rights and responsibilities of the individual citizen versus the interpretation of the rights and responsibilities of the sovereign state. This is to say that while the interest theory of rights brings to the fore important concepts relating to the synthesis of the values pertaining to liberty, community and mutuality – concepts which Francesca Klug (2000) refers to as values for a ‘godless age’ – it falls of short establishing important criteria with regards to who these rights apply to (the rights holder), who these rights impose duties upon (the duty bearer) and what exactly these duties entail. Therefore, we can see that, rather than seeking to impose values for a godless age, interest theories relating to rights merely help to perpetuate the mi sunderstanding and the misconception of the ideal of human rights so that the definition, interpretation and subsequent implantation of rights remains an ideological and theoretical quagmire (Cali and Meckled-Garcia, 2005:1‑9). As a result, we can deduce that the first and most prominent failure of the interest theory is that it does not address the concept of establishing a universal concept for human rights and that it fails to address the question of what human rights are and how they are best protected. Addressing the moral aspect of human rights at the expense of the broader legal and judicial imperative only ensures additional questions will be raised as to the purpose of rights as a social, cultural and political ideal. We can also declare that the interest theory of rights is, in its bid to politicise every sphere of human relationships and human interaction, wholly incompatible with international human rights law because â€Å"international law, by its nature, contains traits which alter the nature of human rights provisions† (Meckled-Garcia and Cali, 2005:23). That is to say that, as a branch of international law, international human rights law is distinct from domestic law of sovereign states that act as the defining means of arbitrating power between individuals on a state by state basis. Yet, as is the case with all law, human rights law clearly and identifiably differs when the concept is transferred from territory to territory; state to state. Human rights in the United Kingdom are, for instance, an inherently different moral concept from human rights in the United States where the boundaries between the legal and the illegal are set by democratically elected domestic governments. Lik ewise, there are distinct judicial differences between domestic human rights law and international human rights law, certainly in the application and exaction of these laws on a worldwide basis. â€Å"Unlike domestic legal systems, there is no such legislature (making laws for the entire international community) nor is there an executive which enforces the decisions made by the legislature. There are also no comparable judicial institutions which would try violations of law and award a judgement against the offender.† (Rehman, 2002:15) This ongoing discrepancy between the ideal of the interest theory of rights and the practical application of this theory across trans-national borders where there is a discernible lack of international consensus with regards to enforcing decisions renders the interest theory an ideologically weak hypothesis. More importantly, we can see further evidence of how the interest theory fails to answer the question of how best to bridge the theoretical divide between domestic human rights law and international human rights law. We can also find fault in the interest theory of rights when we pause to consider the flip-side of the argument by looking at those rights that are not in the interest rights holder. If, for instance, we consider the legal rights involved in the exchange of property inheritance we can understand the extent to which unwanted goods can be effectively tithed to a person simply because the interest-based law states that it is in the citizen’s best interest to have the property passed down to them. Likewise when we turn our attention to public officials, we can again see the in-built limitations inherent within the interest based right theory. If, for instance, the handing down of custodial sentences was left to solely the best interests of the judge (as opposed to the best interests of the public community whom the judge is supposed to be representing) then the core structures of the criminal justice system would come crashing down with a sense of arbitrary judgement replacing lib eral, democratic rule. It is for this reason that Meckled-Garcia and Cali (2005:24) note that: â€Å"The transformation of a moral right into a legal right, as desirable as it may be, comes at a price. A compromise must be struck with other principles in law.† In this way we can see how the interest theory of human rights represents a paradox whereby in trying to establish a moral imperative to underpin the concept of human rights, the theory has instead given birth to new conceptual confusions with regards to the blurring of the boundaries of the public and the private and the intermeshing of the paradigms of the individual and the state. With this in mind we must now turn our attention towards establishing a conclusion. Conclusion The concept of human rights by nature implies a deep-seated association with the concept of interest with the best interests of the individual being intrinsically linked to the ongoing strive for the â€Å"state of equality and freedom† between individuals that defines the most basic and fundamental theories of human rights (Freeman, 2002:20). Likewise international law by nature implies a deep-seated association with the concept of interest with the best interests of the sovereign state being the primary determining factor behind the most basic and fundamental theories relating to international relations (Brown and Ailey, 2005:63-77). However, in the final analysis, there is an equally deep-seated chasm between the interest theory of rights and the practice of translating western moral imperatives (which have grown exclusively in tandem with the evolution of western liberal democracy) on both a domestic and, especially, on an international scale. There must, ultimately, be a limit to the freedom of the individual and a point at which the best interests of the individual have to be subjugated in favour of the best interests of the state. For as long as this theoretical and practical divide exists, we should presume that the interest based theory of rights will remain rooted in the realms of utopia as opposed to flourishing in the realms of realism. References Bentham, J. (1987) Anarchical Fallacies, in, Waldon, J. (Ed.) Nonsense upon Stilts New York: Methuen Brown, C. and Ailey, K. (2002) Understanding International Relations: Third Edition London: Palgrave Macmillan Cali, B. and Meckled-Garcia, S. (2005) Introduction: Human Rights Legalized: Defining, Interpreting and Implementing an Ideal, in, Meckled-Garcia, S and Cali, B. (Eds.) The Legalization of Human Rights: Multidisciplinary Perspectives London and New York: Routledge Davidson, S. (1993) Human Rights: First Edition Buckingham: The Open University Press Freeman, M. (2002) Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach Cambridge: Polity Press Klug, F. (2000) Values for a Godless Age London: Penguin Meckled-Garcia, S. and Cali, B. (2005) Lost in Translation: International Law and the Human Rights Ideal, in, Meckled-Garcia, S and Cali, B. (Eds.) The Legalization of Human Rights: Multidisciplinary Perspectives London and New York: Routledge Pogge, T.W.M. (2007) Freedom from Poverty as a Human Right Oxford: Oxford University Press Rehman, J. (2002) International Human Rights Law: A Practical Approach London: Longman Robertson, G. (2006) Crimes Against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice: New Edition London: Penguin

Sylvia Plath Poem Comparison Essay

Sylvia Plath Poem Comparison Essay Saying Sylvia Plath was a troubled woman would be an understatement. She was a dark poet, who attempted suicide many times, was hospitalized in a mental institution, was divorced with two children, and wrote confessional poems about fetuses, reflection, duality, and a female perspective on life. Putting her head in an oven and suffocating was probably the happiest moment in her life, considering she had wanted to die since her early twenties. However, one thing that was somewhat consistent throughout her depressing poetry would be the theme of the female perspective.The poems selected for analysis and comparison are, †A Life†(1960),†You’re†(1960), â€Å"Mirror† (1961), â€Å"The Courage of Shutting-Up† (1962) and finally, â€Å"Kindness† (1963). All five of these previously discussed poems have some sort of female perspective associated with them, and that commonality is the focus point of this ess ay. The first poem listed, â€Å"A Life†, was written in November 1960, and is a fairly long poem for Plath’s standards. There are eight stanzas, and thirty five lines, and one overall message.The general message of the poem is to discuss appearance and reality, and to compare them. Plath reiterates that appearance cannot be maintained, and she uses a mix of delicate diction in the beginning-to represent appearances- and transitions to aggressive diction when she moves back to reality. The female perspective is most prevalent when Plath starts the â€Å"reality† part of the poem, and talks about a woman, who seems to be hospitalized, and isolated like a â€Å"fetus in a bottle. † The idea of a troubled patient seems to be a personal reflection on Plath’s asylum days. A Life† begins delicately, and Plath uses phrases such as â€Å"clear as a tear†, or â€Å"†¦glass†¦will ping like a Chinese chime†¦ though nobody looks up or bothers to answer†¦Ã¢â‚¬  to create a sort of â€Å"fishbowl effect†- a fragile, yet isolated world, transparent and watched by others. Plath also uses water-like diction, like â€Å"sea waves†, â€Å"sea†, and even the darker word, â€Å"drowned† to create such an effect. When the poem transitions back to reality, it seems like the previously mentioned â€Å"fishbowl† was just thrown into the violent ocean.Plath uses diction like â€Å"private blitzkrieg†, â€Å"fetus in a bottle† â€Å"grief and anger†, and even â€Å"age and terror† to create the awkward, violent, and even disturbing reality that this woman in the poem lives in. â€Å"You’re†, written in 1960 during Plath’s pregnancy, is a poem about Sylvia’s baby-to-be. There are two stanzas, each with nine lines, as to represent the nine months of pregnancy. The female perspective here couldn’t be more obvious- a pregnant mother reflecting on her pregnancy and describing her child; men can’t share that experience. â€Å"You’re† is one of Plath’s happier poems, and doesn’t go very deep as some of her other poems do.The first stanza is describing the unborn fetus as â€Å"clownlike†, â€Å"moon-skulled† and â€Å"gilled. † Visualizing a fetus with an underdeveloped head, upside-down and breathing in liquid constantly is explanation enough for this diction. Plath also discusses the nocturnal nature of babies, and the silence of the bread-like creature growing inside her. The second stanza discusses the idea that a baby is â€Å"looked for like mail†, and that the fetus seems snug and jumpy. The most profound line in the entire poem is the last line, â€Å"A clean slate, with your own face on†, describing the baby’s soon-to-be new beginnings as a fresh start, a â€Å"clean slate. â€Å"Mirror† written in 1961, is the qu intessential of Plath poems, in that it expresses three of Plath’s most common themes greatly in one depressing poem: duality, reflection, and the female perspective. The female perspective in this poem is best described as a troubled woman who constantly searches for the truth in mirrors, but finds no answers. The mirror discussed in the first stanza is exact and truthful, but almost pretentious, in that it considers itself almost godlike.The lake is where the woman seems to find the most comfort in, seeing the distorted images of her, the candles, and the moon. The last few lines seem to attribute her depression to her age, and maybe the fact that she never got to enjoy her childhood, her young years, and she despises seeing herself grow old in the reflection of the lake. â€Å"The Courage of Shutting-Up† was written in 1962, a year before Sylvia’s end, and uses the ideas of repetition, speech, and censorship to express her ideas on female obedience and civil censorship.The female perspective here is the idea of not being able to speak out, and living in repetition, with a defeated tongue- hung up on the wall like a trophy. The poem uses many different types of diction, but most of it is masculine, and war-like, as if Plath was fighting a war against men. The first stanza of the poem begins with â€Å"The courage of the shut mouth, in spite of artillery! † and follows with bits of diction to describe a record player, with â€Å"black disks†¦ of courage†¦Ã¢â‚¬  as to describe Plath’s thoughts and feelings just playing over and over again, â€Å"asking to be heard. The second stanza continues with the record player metaphor, â€Å"a needle in its groove†, and transitions to an overqualified tattooist in the third stanza, once a surgeon (maybe a metaphor for Sylvia’s downgrade from a great poet to a dumpy mother) who repeats the same overused tattoos over and over, silently, and solemnly. The fourth stanza returns to the metaphor of war, and artillery as well as the record player. The tongue is introduced, and is described as â€Å"indefatigable, purple. † The poem then questions if the tongue is dangerous, and if it must be cut out.The answer to that question must’ve been yes, because the tongue is then described as a trophy, hung up on the mantle like the â€Å"fox heads, the otter heads, and the heads of dead rabbits† before it. This is most likely an extended metaphor of Plath being silenced by her husband, and she can only admire her husband’s trophy in defeat. The poem ends with an image of a forgotten country, whose pride and power is hidden and long gone- probably another metaphor for her power to speak out, taken away by her husband or simply by her gender- as women didn’t have much say in things.The final poem â€Å"Kindness† was written in 1963, in the month of Plath’s suicide, and shortly after her husband left her. T he poem is structured evenly; four stanzas with five lines each. This poem contains the female perspective in that Plath mocks the typical view of kindness- almost satirically mother-like- and she also talks about children and how desperate and almost helpless they are in the whole scheme of things. The poem starts out by stating how full of kindness her house is, and already hints that kindness is and illusion with the word â€Å"smoke† and â€Å"mirrors: shortly after one another, and that these mirror are filled with smiles.The second stanza talks about the cry of a child, but not like a sobbing cry, but a sort of cry of agony, or desperation, and how that is the most real thing that she knows of, and that it is unlike the cry of a rabbit as, the cry of a child has a soul. This second stanza maybe hints at thoughts of Plath killing her children alongside herself, which is a somewhat disturbing thought. The poem continues, and with talk of â€Å"kindness sweetly picking u p the pieces. † Plath also uses delicate diction like â€Å"butterflies† and â€Å"Japanese silks† to maybe express the delicacy of â€Å"kindness. The poem ends, with a sort of final statement to her cheating husband, as presumably â€Å"he† comes in with an effort to console her, â€Å"with a cup of tea†, and Plath responds in another suicide like statement: â€Å"The blood jet is poetry, there is no stopping it. † This is reminiscent of slit wrists, and that you can’t stop the blood flow from a slit wrist. The final line seems to confirm that this poem was directed at her husband, with â€Å"you hand me two children, two roses. When Plath says â€Å"roses†, it immediately brings forth images of flowers at a funeral, rather than roses given as a token of love. Out of the entire selection, this is the most desperate and angry poem reviewed. Now, after the lengthy analyses of all five poems, all five had elements of the female perspective in them, some way or another. In â€Å"A Life† the female perspective was the view of the patient, feeling isolated and trapped in the painful reality that she lives in, and she takes shelter in the fragile â€Å"fishbowl† of a fantasy world she has constructed.In â€Å"You’re†, the female perspective is expressed in pregnancy. This experience is female exclusive, and Plath eagerly awaits the birth of her baby. In â€Å"Mirror†, the female perspective is that of a troubled woman who looks to the reflections of mirrors for answers, and prefers the distorted ripples of the lake to the awful truth of the wall mirror. Depressingly enough, even though the lake is distorted, the woman sees her age rising to meet her day after day, â€Å"like a terrible fish. In â€Å"The Courage of Shutting Up†, the female perspective is that of a woman who is trapped by her repetitive household duties, and the limits on her expression by her husband . Obviously, not being able to speak you mind is a sort of mental imprisonment, and the only way out for Plath was her poems. This poem was the embodiment of those expressions. The female perspective in â€Å"Kindness† was some sort of suicidal anger against her former husband, and a sort of Medea-like want to kill her children to spite her former lover.She talks about â€Å"kindness† as a sort of facade put on by a woman to keep everything together in her household. In comparison to each other, â€Å"Mirror†, â€Å"A Life†, and â€Å"The Courage of Shutting-Up† are all female-minded grievances towards the society that Plath lives in, and the relationship that she is in with her husband. All three involve some sort of negative personal evaluation, as well as being dark and depressing. â€Å"Kindness† and â€Å"You’re† stand alone, in that â€Å"Kindness† is an extremely dark and angry poem directed at Sylvia’s hus band, and â€Å"You’re† is a somewhat hopeful poem about pregnancy.They are direct opposites of each other and both represent different eras in Plath’s life- one of pseudo-happiness, and one of hatred and despair. The female perspective in Plath’s poem’s are always present, no matter what form they come in, or the period in Plath’s life that they were written. Plath has always seen some fascination, some point to be made, in the gender differences of her generation, and she made sure to include the female perspective, which was often unheard, and made it heard.

Writing Services Online - Overview

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Internet banking and its effect on businesses and people - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 33 Words: 10038 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Internet banking and its effect on businesses and people Table of Contents Abstract Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Internet banking and its effect on businesses and people" essay for you Create order Introduction Methodology Literature Review Whatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s on the Internet? What is an Internet Cookie? How Vulnerable is the Computer System? What does it really do? The Problems We Are Facing: Argument Limiting the Use of Cookies: European Privacy Directive on Electronic Commerce: Analysis Where Does the Problem Lie? The Issues: Who gets to take part in the Data Processing Transfers? Suggestions The problem: Rights of Privacy: Security and Information Systems: Organizational Impacts/Issues: Future: Conclusion References Abstract: The Internet has helped man to carve a world in which everything is a short distance away. It has aided a globalized world in which the speed of transportation and communication is quickened. People do not have to wait for long periods for many things that they used to have to wait for. Reponses are quickened and made so much more convenient to the extent that one can even get a number of jobs done while sitting at home. This indeed refers to the availability of facilities on line that allows one utmost convenience. A person can now access his or her bank account on line and have bills paid. In addition to this, direct access allows one to perform a number of transactions, which allow one the convenience of sitting at home or even saving time when one is at the office. No doubt, there is so much that Internet banking has provided for people today, and businesses save an immense amount of time as well. However, doubt has been cast on Internet banking because of the chances of intercep tions during a transaction. Some people and businesses fear that their accounts can be interfered with as they conduct transaction on line. Passwords, usernames, and other confidential information are believed to be at risk because of particular internet functions. It is known that most of the internet functions aid a person during daily usage of the Internet, but it is thought that these same functions such as Internet cookies are capable of revealing information that is naturally undesired. The result is that there is considerable confusion over the safety of Internet Banking though the world is largely turning to this facility that both time-saving as well as convenient. Introduction: The world in which one lives today is indeed a fast-paced one. This fast-paced environment has evolved because of various actions, each of them interacting and producing a variety of results, and creating effects that favor the current situations today. This may all sound complex, but in truth it may be simply described as a vast number of actions causing a very situation that one witnesses today. This complex situation does not mean that there is total chaos because there is in fact an organized system in place. This organized system is one that helps many countries stay in contact with each other. However, the system is not one that favors friendship, but actually focuses on economic gains; countries are motivated in this system to work towards their own gain. They stay in touch with each other for the purpose of suiting their own needs. It is obvious that they would not do things on a charitable basis for another country when they could actually invest time and money in bettering their own conditions. Due to the availability of the Internet, countries are able to remain in close touch and trade easily. Online communications have facilitated countries well enough in order to raise their standards of living, and it is on the basis of this tat many people have turned their lives around. Aside from the globalized environment within which one may operate with the help of the Internet, it must be asserted that there are also other means of keeping in touch with other countries. Transportation for one is an important means of remaining in touch and working with other people. In view of this, it must be asserted that the businesses and other operations can be enhanced this way. With speedy communication on their side, a business has better scope of advancing. It must be realized that competition is facilitated well in the global system, and the globalized features aid countries in participating in different kinds of competition whether it is business, sports or a mixture of the two. In view of sports and business in the form of a mixture, it must be asserted that there is great focus on the business part of the mixture. Methodology: Observing the manner in which there are so many people accessing the Internet daily, there is need to look into the types of users that are online. In addition to this, there is need to realize how many people are dependent on the Internet for transactions through banks. In view of this, there is due consideration given to the number of important businesses trading through the Internet. Each of these forms a small but significant part of the daily online business. Reviewing literature that pertains to businesses and peoples lives and activities being affected by Internet banking is indeed an appropriate way to assess the effects of Internet banking. Through this review of literature, there is a great deal revealed about the safety of the process and what the risks of Internet banking might be. Each point is discussed at considerable length and targeted from an unbiased and broad angle. This has helped to present the facts as reported in the sources and allow analysis to be conducted fairly. Analyzing the literature reveals to what extent the fears of Internet banking are real, and how many people still continue to use Internet banking facilities. Aside from this analysis, an analysis of the arguments made reveal to what extent effects of Internet banking is legitimate. With both analyses, the effects of Internet banking and the authenticity of it as well are exposed. Sources for the literature review are ones that are relative to the issue and are authentic, as they are taken from books, journals as well as official websites, newspapers and magazines. Literature Review: There is plenty of doubt cast over the safety of transactions via the Internet. In particular, Internet banking is an issue of grave concern even though most people are turning to the Internet for the sake of convenience and saving time. In addition to this, businesses and individuals too have little choice, and in time to come, everyone will be compelled to use Internet banking services. Whatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s on the Internet? The problems that one faces with Internet transactions by and large have everything to do with the interference that one receives from files such as Internet cookies and hacking software, and these are the kinds of things that can damage the confidence with which consumers, retailers, etc. conduct day to day business. These are files that are able to interfere or extract personal information from any computer that it enters. This can take place at any time when we are surfing the net or opening up any important website. What these Internet cookies actually do is they enter a userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Personal Computer when it is on, and then settle itself into it. When the user switches on the P.C. again, these files are activated, and send information back to the site that it came from. Thus it helps to maintain a record of the patterns that a particular Internet surfer uses. In doing so, these Internet cookies can use these patterns to keep sending the user information, available schemes, attractive offers etc. from different companies that are relevant to the kind of sites that s/he downloads. This is sometimes seen as an advantage because of the good schemes that might come up with the use of Internet cookies, but aside from this there may be serious implications. There could be very personal information that could be leaked out at the same time of using these cookies. This is essentially a problem for business organizations because there may be some very sensitive information that could be leaked out due to these cookies, and therefore, jeopardize the business. Further, this is such an acute problem that could eventually affect the reliability with which we are presently trading locally and internationally, and could very well destroy the whole concept of globalization. Along with the Internet cookies are the software hackers that are seemingly more inclined towards executivesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ computers than governmental ones. It seems that they have lost interest in the heavily protected security systems in places like banks, perhaps because the risk is far too high. They are becoming better and better at entering the personal accounts of executives for the simple reason that they are easy targets and the rewards are fruitful. For this reason there is a constant quest to develop software that is able to track the entry of a hacker. Even so, it appears that this protection is not enough, as it is said that there is no software that can give one hundred percent security (Boulton, C. 2001). To begin with there is a very good phrase that could be aptly applied here, and it says, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“when in doubt, donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢tà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . We have been, for quite some time now, debating over the effectiveness, the danger and the benefits of the Internet cookie. The truth of the matter is that there is very little that we really do know, and indeed very little that one can be sure of regarding the same. One cannot really be sure about the way that the Internet cookie works. It can be responsible for destroying lives, indeed millions of lives. Critics on the other hand, argue that there is nothing to be worried about, as these Internet cookies are harmless text files that extract only information of search patterns. They say that it does not retrieve personal information, such as e-mail addresses. In response to this, we cannot really say whether the capability of the Internet cookie is related to this alone. If it is capable of tracing and recording search pattern s, it could be capable of extracting more than just this. This is the reason why, many a time, one can come across, especially after a particular website has been down loaded, un-requested mail seeps into ones account. Surely, this is no coincidence, but purely a result of the Internet cookie picking up ones personal information. If this had been a case that occurred rarely, it would be unfair to blame it on the cookie. However, this happens much too often. Also, there may be more serious security concerns; national security concerns. What is an Internet Cookie? Internet Cookies are actually short pieces of data that are used by web servers in order to identify a web user. This has led to rumors and stories have been created and built upon to such an extent that people around the world are worried about their privacy. It is especially of great concern when it comes to a matter of national security. Can you imagine what would happen if terrorists got hold of valuable confidential information? Cookies are only used to identify a web user and the habits associated with the user. None of the data retrieved by the Internet cookie is destroyed or misplaced. If managers or business organizations are deeply concerned in this regard they can always adopt the use cookie blocking packages. This would restrict them from being identified, as the browser wonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t accept any cookies. But this to a certain extent inhibits the functions of servers. We must also remember that by blocking Internet Cookies we are not putting a stop to ourselves from being identified but we are only making it more difficult to be identified. (CIAC Internet Cookies 1998) How Vulnerable is the Computer System? This problem is virtually non-existent. What these little pieces of information do is tell the server whether one has already browsed through a particular site. This is made possible by the fact that the cookie uses the information of the browser like the user number. This is probably the reason why people have started to fear it. The questions asked might be what does the cookie do once it knows our user number? Most Internet cookies last only for a short while, that is they donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t exist once one has quit browsing. There is also another kind of cookie that exists, for instance there are cookies that have their expiry dates fixed. These are called persistent cookies and their expiry dates are stored on the userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s hard disk (CIAC Internet Cookies 1998) What does it really do? The persistent Internet Cookie can be used to track the userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s searching habits whenever he or she hooks up to the web. The cookie already knowing where you come from and the type of files that you tend to access does this. It is actually assumed that a userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal information can be tapped in to while the cookie is in existence. Confidential information such as credit card numbers and passwords can be gathered. Rumors have it that these cookies are detrimental programs that expose your privacy. (CIAC Internet Cookies 1998) What the server actually does when you access it is that it sends you a cookie that you send back to it every time you request data from the same site. It is widely believed that during this process the web server can extract personal information from the user. A cookie is sent to a browser that includes a certain amount of syntax in the header of an HTML document. The header is already removed from the document before the browser displays it. Hence the header will not be visible if you execute the View, Source or View, Document Source commands in your browser. (CIAC Internet Cookies 1998) Cookies are only short strings of data that are sent from a web server to web browser when a browser visits a particular site. Undoubtedly the Internet cookie is stored on your computer and only comes in to operation when you visit a website. It is certainly not an executable program that can filter out confidential information as rumors have it. (CIAC Internet Cookies 1998) Cookies are thought to be harmless by their users. Further more they are of extreme help though critics suggest that they are digital agents of bother that are potentially capable of great harm to your computer as well as to your privacy. The truth of this criticism falls somewhere in between; this is when one observes that they can be of great help in searching out what we want or they can make you the recipient of a whole lot of junk mail. This is when your PC can get corrupted and valuable information lost. According to a report on Internet Cookies released by the U.S. Department of Energys Computer Incident Advisory Capability noted: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The popular rumors about Web cookies describe them as programs that can scan your hard drive and gather information about you including: passwords, credit card numbers and a list of the software on your computer. None of this is close to the truthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . (Solver, 1998) The problems have started since the time private citizens and businesses were allowed access to the Internet. Allowing them access was important because this meant an overall benefit to the country with respect to finance. Since the access was allowed businesses were not the only ones to benefit from this form of communication. Virtually every man in the street is aware of the many wonders the Internet can provide. Among these people the evildoers can be found such as ones who release software viruses into cyberspace and hackers. (Author not available, 2001) And what is worse is the fact that the number of these elements of our society seems to be growing larger day by day. In order to deal with them every day there are a large number of programs being created to protect our valuable and personal information. However, the problem remains that there isnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t any one such software program that can guarantee us one hundred percent safety. (Lazarus 1998) The Problems We Are Facing: Internationally people find themselves victims of junk mail every year, and it is this mail that accounts for ten million dollars being spent annually as a result. A lot of money every year is also spent on Spam. (UK Electronic Communications Bill) Spam consists of everything from pornographic material to schemes on how to get rich in no time. These are actually spread out far and wide in order to exploit the interests of people who have got nothing else better to do. Even though companies have tried their level best to restrict the amount of junk mail they receive just isnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t enough[1]. Companies have been known to receive up to eighty percent Spam in spite of software protection being implemented. (Lazarus 1998) Cookies: This is a neat ploy to curtail the amount of Spam filtering in but is it intruding our privacy? It is said that having cookies on your PC seems to encourage more Spam. How many companies have tried to solve this problem? Hundreds of Software companies have attempted to solve this Cookie problem but most of them face a number of limitations and fail to contend with it.[2] It is intriguing to know that when we are hooked up to the web we are constantly presented by messages offering us cookies. The fact is that companies are now using these in their sales kits in order to boost their sales. People might think that it is obvious that if we want to purchase something from the net we will opt to request it ourselves[3]. But they miss the whole point that it is part of the sales kit being employed through the net because there are no such salesmen standing before you who can convince you that you are looking at the right product. In the field of sales cookies have had there share of success but there are certain things that they cannot achieve. They are not capable of gathering personal information from your PC and transmitting it, and they certainly cannot plant Viruses in your machine. They are much smaller in size as compared to their program files. The program files are considered to be their cousin files and this is another one of the reasons that the cookie has got a bad name. It is only the viruses that carry the real threat and should be screened by anti virus programs. Only the site that has created a cookie can read it, so that even if there is any confidential information stored in it, it will remain undisclosed.[4] Stanton McCandish, program director of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, has said that there are still ways to abuse the information stored within and it is for this reason the European Economic Community is following a law that has made it illegal for any one to share personal identification for commercial uses without the consent of the person concerned. (Lazarus 1998) The best way to turn out a Cookie is to turn them off completely. The only minor problem is that the same website from where weà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve turned out the cookie becomes inoperable. You will realize that the site where youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve rejected the cookieà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s use will steadily decrease in speed and almost to a halt. (Lazarus 1998) It has also been known that the web server continues to transmit information to remote websites. It is this information that can help trace the paths you take and store this information at their sites rather than them storing it in your PC. Web browsing habits are being recorded no matter what you do to prevent them from being recorded. Even the most effective à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“anonymizersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  will not prevent Web browsing habits from being recorded. With this kind of prevailing situation it is no wonder that we find people worrying about their safety and privacy. The following that are not considered safe are: e-mail, browsing habits, news group postings and to be safe the contents of the hard drive of any machine hooked to the Internet. All important work and important information should be scrambled using encryption software if confidentiality must be maintained.[5] One thing that we must remember is that no matter what kind of elaborate set up we have, no matter how secu re it is supposed to be, someone somewhere is able to read our work and personal information. In his own words Mclandish said, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“I dont trust in Internet security, but I dont actually distrust it. He believes that there is no such thing as one hundred percent bug free. (Slover, 1998) Argument: Many federal bodies are using Internet cookies in order to trace out visitors of their sites. The cookie has unique identifiers with them that are used to retrieve and store information that enable website owners to recognize regular users of their sites. There are two types of these text files; the first is called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sessionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and the next one is called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“persistentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Sessionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  cookies expire as soon as the user cuts off contact or exits the browser while persistent cookies are the ones that have the ability to remain on your PC for a certain amount of time depending on the date of expiry. The Office of Management and Budget addressed the use of cookies on federal websites[6]. It stated that the use persistent cookie was prohibited on federal websites. It also stressed further that persistent cookies could only be used by agencies when: Provide clear and conspicuous notice of their use, Have a compelling need to gather the data on-site Have appropriate and publicly disclosed privacy safeguards for handling information derived from cookies, Have personal approval by the head of the agency (https://www.pir.org/ciascan.html) Along with other things the cookie has stored on along with its name, are its unique identification number, its expiry date and its domain. What happens when a browser requests a particular page from the server that sent it the cookie, it sends the same back to it. Generally speaking most cookies are actually placed in our systems by the web sites that we visit.[7] Aside from this some sites allow a third-party cookie to enter them. What we mean by third party cookie is a cookie from another domain being placed in the PC of a user and then being sent to another website to recover a page that is required. These cookies may be either à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sessionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  cookies or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“persistentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  cookies. Session cookies are generally short-lived and are used or are active only when a user is on line. They are automatically deactivated when the user exits the browser. These kinds of cookies can generally be used in interactive opinion survey. (Government Accounting Office Report, 2001) Persistent cookies are text files that remain stored on an individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s PC until a specified date of expiry. These can be used to trace a web browserà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s browsing patterns. Noting the browserà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s linkage with other relevant data does this. Although these aid us in commerce there are also the big questions of privacy risks due to their usage, even if they themselves do not collect the identifiable data contained within them[8]. Links may be made even if it was not the actual intent of the website. For instance, individuals searching through a particular website are sometimes compelled to feed in some of their personal information such as names, e-mail addresses, telephone numbers, etc. What happens is the persistent cookie links itself to this identifiable personal information and this makes it easy for the path or pattern of the browser to be retraced. This is the practice that has led to much concern of visitorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s of federal websites. (Government Accounting Office Report, 2001) Limiting the Use of Cookies: Browsers such as Microsoftà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Internet Explorer accept cookies that are able to track a userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s pattern of browsing. Presently browser designs allow browsers to block the cookies upon request, and the Internet Task Force recently proposed changing browsers in order to automatically block them. This would largely limit their use. A survey found that cookies are an integral part of IAB (Internet Architecture Board) companies and are particularly used in measuring site users, developing user profiles for advertisers and for advertising targeting, the vast majority of respondents said. They also indicated that cookies are important to plans that are used to support higher value for advertising.[9] Respondents have overwhelmingly favored cookies, as their use will benefit both marketers and consumers by helping to ensure the right message reaches the right targeted market at the right time. In addition to this it was found that more than 85 percent of respondents opposed having their browsers set to automatically disable the use of cookies. Further, in the survey it was estimated that 80 percent of the IAB members did not see cookies as potentially threatening. Although there were a few who felt that consumers might feel that the use of cookies is an invasion of their privacy. Others described this to be a misperception. In another piece of research it was found that 86 percent of respondents said that there was a need for a dependable and consistent form of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“digital identificationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . The reason for this is the importance of increasing Internet advertisement revenues and improving consumer experiences on the Internet. European Privacy Directive on Electronic Commerce: Electronic commerce that takes place within the European Union member states should be aware of the European Unions Directive on Privacy Protection. According to the Directive, it treats privacy as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“basic human rightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  and encourages the European Union states to ensure its protection. This will have an affect on the smooth running of all electronic commerce within the Union. Adherence to this à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“minimum standardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  is what is required of member and nonmember states. The minimum standards refer to the processing of personal data of the identified or the identifiable person. Our attention is drawn in particular towards article 25. This article prohibits the transfer of any personal data to countries that are outside the European Union to countries that donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t provide ample protection of personal data (Taylor 1999). Analysis: It is obvious that privacy needs to be protected as much as possible. If oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s privacy is not protected in the manner it should be, there can be no guarantee about anything on the Internet. It also means that democracy is only limited to the physical space that people live in and cannot be extended to cyber space. The differences between existence in oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s physical space and cyber space have been disputed for a while; many are skeptical about the extent of control that authorities have in cyber space. This is legitimate to a great extent because of the fact that there is little control over programs that are not visible and sometimes not even detectible. Federal laws and various other approaches have been sought and rightly so because in time to come it is expected that one will be dependent on the systems that are presented to the common man. This means that if Internet banking systems are ones that the common man is compelled to use then there will be little or no way of escaping it. Whether or not risks of security will be present or not is another matter, but with the way that everything is being globalized it is expected that Internet Banking will grow more and more common. Undoubtedly, this is a necessity for the pace of business to increase and greater gains to take place. However, the problem is that there has to be a way of dealing with the current security problems that are feared. Only appropriate litigation and technological advancements can deal with these, and it is hoped that some solution will be formulated. Where Does the Problem Lie? The member nations that adhere to the above law will benefit because they will receive unobstructed information within the Union and will also have access to its market. States that do not adhere to the law or cannot guarantee the privacy of personal data, the Directive may pose as an immense Trade Barrier. (Taylor 1999) For example US companies may be subjected to penalties or may even be denied access to the European market if they fail to protect the privacy of European customers. This may even be imposed without them exhibiting an actual breach of privacy[10]. What could implicate the directive too is every Internet transaction that is made through the US with a European consumer. It is even likely that the Directive would apply to the transmission of email for business and academic purposes. (Taylor 1999) The Issues: It is said that the Directive does not define à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“adequateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  as a general form but stresses that adequate will be defined on a case-by-case basis, so that they are able to take into account the prevailing circumstances that surround the data transfer situation. Due consideration will be given to the nature of the data, the purpose and duration of the proposed processing, the country of origin and destination, general and sectoral rules of law, and professional rules and security measures which exist in the destination country. In case any inadequacy is found there may be serious consequences. (Taylor 1999) There are several exceptions to article 25, the prohibition of transfers, which are listed in article 26. One of these exceptions states that a member state may authorize data transfers to a country whose laws do not meet Article 25s adequacy standard if the controller (the body able to determine the purpose and means of the processing) can show adequate safeguards to protect privacy. Article 26 also recognizes that contracts have a duty to perform in ensuring protection, but it does not define this any further. (Taylor 1999) The following is an abstract from Perkins COIE[11] The Discussion Document identifies six principles by which the adequacy of a countrys data protection may be gauged: limitation of purpose-data processing should be limited to a specific purpose; data quality and proportionality-data should be correct and, where appropriate, kept current; transparency-the purpose for which the data is processed, as well as the entities in possession of the data, must be known to the concerned individual, and individuals must receive any other information necessary to ensure fair processing; security-data should be protected by security measures commensurate with its sensitivity; access, rectification and opposition-individuals must have access to data concerning themselves, the ability to correct errors and the right to object to some types of processing; and restrictions on forwarding data-data may not be forwarded from one country to another unless the destination country also ensures adequate protections. (Swire Litan 1997) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Sensitiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  data also encompasses extreme requirements, which include racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, trade union membership, health or sexuality. The Working Party includes transfers that involve:[12] risk of financial loss, such as Internet credit card payments; risk to personal safety; decisions significantly affecting an individual, such as recruitment, promotion or credit; embarrassment or harm to an individuals reputation; the potential for significant intrusion into an individuals private life, such as unsolicited telephone calls; repetitive transfers of large volumes of data, such as transactional data over telecommunications networks or the Internet; and covert data collection, such as Internet cookies. (Swire Litan 1997) The working party further notes that there might be a greater need to providing protection to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sensitiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  data. It also believes that individuals ought to have the option to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“opt outà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  of data processing systems, and also have a right to know what is going to be done with their data and where all it is going to be transferred. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Adequacyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  will not only depend on the amount of privacy laws but it will also largely rely on the enforcing implements that are available to them, such as how likely a countrys laws are to ensure a high level of compliance, the existence of effective sanctions and the extent to which data controllers and individuals know the laws requirements; institutional means available to individuals to enforce their rights without undue cost or difficulty; and mechanisms for redress, including arbitration, compensation and sanctions. (Swire Litan 1997) Who gets to take part in the Data Processing Transfers? This discussion is relevant to third countries. There will be a preparation of a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“white listà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  of countries whose privacy protection laws are considered as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“adequateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . All types of data transfer will be evaluated on a case-by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"case basis with considering the risk that is involved in the transfer process and also the protection that is available in the destination country. Contractual provisions are to be used as a precautionary measure but only sparingly as they have inherent problems. The working party will issue the guidelines for these contracts. Common Questions Regarding European Trade with the US: How can U.S. businesses involved in data transfers in Europe adapt to the Directives requirements given the absence in the United States of a European model of centrally administered national privacy rights? What can be done to maximize the likelihood that European officials will find data processing practices adequate? (Swire Litan 1997) Due to the fact that critical provisions of the Directive are poorly defined, these questions are difficult to answer. This results in a vast discretion to European officials charged with their interpretation. Further more it isnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t easy to see how the model of control can be applicable non-mainframe technologies that decentralize the use of data, which include client-server systems, corporate intranets, e-mail and even portable, laptop computers, all of which can be used to transmit personal data and of course the Internet. These all can be used to send and retrieve data. (Swire Litan 1997) The one European member state that has noted that the Directive is not suited to regulate Internet transactions is the United Kingdom. However, the US Robotics was fined thousands of Pounds in accordance with the United Kingdoms Data Protection Act because it obtained personal information of individual visitors and was not registered under the Act. It had used the personal information to market their goods. (Swire Litan 1997) Suggestions: Businesses should be familiar with the Directive and should carry out their own evaluation in order to get an idea of where they may be penalized. Bodies that are likely to be available for this purpose will demonstrate objective, verifiable and effective mechanisms to ensure data protection. This will aid companies in challenging determinations of inadequacy in the event of them occurring (Swire Litan 1997). There are certain categories of data transfers that are necessary to carry out a contract to whish an individual may consent. In this case it may be permitted as it fits in with one of the Directives exceptions in Article 25. Simple modifications to everyday data processing in other cases may cut down the risk of unintended violations. Notice Provisions of the Directive should also be reviewed and put into action along with business practices. It may also be of some use pinpointing the risk that exists between the US and European bodies contractually. Present contracts should be reviewed and modified according to its requirement. Internal codes of conduct may also help towards existing protections. There are also several standards that aid preserve privacy Internet transactions. The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“P3 standardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  proposed by the World Wide Web, proposed a platform for Privacy that will enable computer users to be informed and make their choices about the collection, use a nd disclosure of their personal information on the Web. Implementation will result in companies being aware of between a sites privacy practices and a users privacy preference. (Swire Litan 1997) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“OPSà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , the Opening Profiling Standard, is another proposed standard that permits the exchange of information along with the safeguard tags of privacy. It provides individuals with an option to submit their information and also submit rules as to how and when the given information can be exchanged with services. (Swire Litan 1997) Europe has come a long way in trying to make the world conform to privacy standards that they are trying to set. The Directive emphasizes on specific conditions that must be met in order to legally process personal data. This stresses that personal data must be processed fairly and lawfully for the legitimate purpose that it was collected. No further processing is permitted. It stresses that it must be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“adequateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  accurate and regularly updated. The data need not be stored for a longer period than is actually required. Further more the processing may only take place when the data of the individual has given his or her à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“unambiguous consentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . (Mayer-Schonberger, 1998) This overwhelming European Directive stresses on restriction of access to personal data. It almost stresses that all aspects of the Internet cookie are violations. This is due to the fact that Internet cookies make unintended and automatic access to personal data. That is the reason why even the simplest of cookie implementations violate the Directive at various levels, and the use of cookies poses serious legal problems with the European national data protection laws. The main core of the problem with the European Directive is that it has serious implications with the United States and its laws. (Mayer-Schonberger, 1998) The Internet cookie is something that is new in technology that has many different sides to its argument and it is important that the consumer is aware of both the uses of it, good and bad. (Esquire 1997) The problem: There is no reason why there can be only one type of Internet cookie. There may a wide range of them, or even ones that are in disguise. The fact is that we donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t really know whether or not they do exist in other forms as well. Most of the explanations put forward regard them as harmless and incapable of leaking out personal information, unless it is voluntarily given to them. But people seem to be taking these assumptions to be the Gospel truth. It is only when they face a real threat or a real breach in security that they might wake up with a start. These Internet cookies are ones that should be taken as seriously as hacker software. This is because one does not really know whether or not these Internet cookies are used to first retrieve the valuable or sensitive information, and then use it to hack someoneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial transactions. For all that we know they could be going hand in glove, working in tandem to get their job done (Slover, P. 1998). The kind of software that is available to deal with these kinds of problems is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Authentication and Encryption Softwareà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. These are the kinds of software that is capable of dealing with foreign data sneaking in undetected. What it does is it does not allow anything to enter the software that it is protecting, unless it bears a particular code. This code is like an identification code. (Authentication and Encryption software, 2002) Rights of Privacy: Security of personal information is a subject that is considered very serious. Using, copying, etc. any ones personal information or organizational information is considered a serious offence. This is the reason why there are so many laws made for the same. There are very strict laws that have been made because of the misuse of information. An example of a law or policy that a company might establish and stick to is the use of Internet cookies. The laws that are made stand a chance of being broken, and this is not jut a risk for the people who use Internet facilitated companies, but is also one for the company that is providing services using the Internet and holding peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal information. This is because they too stand a chance of being deceived in the same way that a user of the same does. Along with this, there may be other kinds of software interference too that could cause personal information to be leaked out. This is not limited to software being used for this but also means that people within a company might decide to misuse the information directly. If this is the case then customers will lose their faith in these organizations. This is especially the case where there is a use of wireless laptop computers. However, the company cannot give any excuse for the same, and is still likely to face legal action for it. This is the reason why they have to be extremely vigilant over their software protection and ensure that their clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal information is not misused and does not get into the wrong hands. (Slover, P.1998). A company might want to use an Internet cookie to track a users surfing patterns. But this should be stated in the policy. If this is not stated, then the user can take legal action against any company for not informing him about the use of the Internet cookie (Martinez, M. 2002). Usually an organization should not mind if there is a presence of these cookies in their systems because this helps a person to search and obtain quicker results, though, most people donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t like the idea, and prefer to be informed prior to their personal information being used. This is especially the case as far as organizations are concerned because this is something that could affect their trade relations. People would not want to do business with them if they found that there was no security in their means of financial transactions. They certainly do not want any interference with their transactions and do not want to allow any company to send files that will track their browsing patterns on the Internet. By the use of these files other competitors can get in touch with their sensitive information, and result in total chaos. This is where these organizations can implement software programs such as Kerberos, MD5, MIME Object Security Services (MOSS), OPIE, PGP, RIPEM, Skey and SSH. Security and Information Systems: An example of the misuse of personal information that may occur and result in possible loss is when the name and e-mail address of a person is recorded by certain software in one scheme on the Internet and is used by another related site. This can take place when an individual or an organization punches in information such as date of birth or e-mail contact for the simple purpose of receiving information. It is this information that should be kept secret and not shared with any other sites. Sadly, this is the common scenario. And, this is especially the case when one opens up unauthentic sites. Their very appearance seems to be so highly designed that one can be easily deceived. And, then later, these are the same sites that are responsible for leaking out an individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal information. What actually happens is, these Internet cookies extract this information, and share it with other related sites that are similar to the one that has been accessed. This is som ething that is most objectionable on the part of the user, as it takes away his or her the right of privacy. In addition to this, the issue arises because the company that has just taken the information might or might not be aware that they have Internet cookies using the information that their customers have been sending them. In the long run, this could affect the business of the same. Examples of this are seen when one downloads a site, for example, a site on airline tickets. At that very moment, one will get a whole lot of ads popping up, that are related to cheap airline fares. This is actually a result of the way that the Internet cookies have used the information that the user has sent to get the airline ticket fares. This happens because there are so many of these Internet cookies that are floating in cyber space, waiting for an opportunity to get hold of anyone with the search patterns for airline tickets and fares. Another way is that the Internet cookies have already got into the system that the user is browsing. From here, it can easily get into the userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s PC and extract the required information. This is something, as said before, that the airline might not be aware of. But it is something that is actually their responsibility to deal with. They are the ones that are taking the users personal information and processing the same, so they are the ones who are directly responsible for ensuring safety to the same of the user. If security, in this respect, is going to become a problem for the user, then there will be many people who will be afraid to use the services provided by the airline. This, in fact, applies to all the trading companies all over the world. There will be very few people who will truly trust the Internet as a reliable means of financial transactions, etc. The reason for this is that there are so many financial transactions that are made everyday that are potentially at risk because of these cookies and software hack ers. So, for the same not to occur there must be a way of preventing these cookies from entering airline hardware, and this is directly the responsibility of the company that takes hold of a userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal information (Furger, R. 1998) (Slover, P. 1998). By using programs such as Kerberos, MD5, MIME, etc. an organization can also prevent any one reading their data. With the use of certain software organizations can have the data coded. In this way, no one can read the data unless the key is also presented. This is the best form of protection. But in order to do this, an organization has to have a proper budget for their security. If an organization cannot come forth with one then it means that there is no guarantee that it can provide security of personal information and financial transactions. It is for reasons of safeguarding customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ privacy rights that many companies using on line transactions are now also advertising their privacy policy. It is no more considered to be a formality, as this issue has become so severe that the privacy policies are seen as a must. It is absolutely mandatory that the same is advertised and printed in a size that a user cannot miss. Before this, the advertisement of privacy policy was printed in such a manner that one could hardly see it. But now things have changed, and printing it all unambiguously is seen as essential. This has all resulted from the gravity of the situation, and should give everyone a clue of what breaches in security can take place. This is essential for the business organizations because they are the ones that are dealing with finance through the Internet. The reason why these are so risky is that they can be tapped into and the finance removed if any outsider gets hold of the personal or confidentia l information of the company (Glass, B. 2000). There may be a lot of argument put up in this respect, and software houses may even sound convincing that there is nothing to fear about Internet cookies, but the fact remains that these little seemingly harmless text files can get themselves into a computer system purely by accident and are able to extract sensitive information and send it out to the server that it originated from. It is very hard to believe anyone who defends their effectiveness, especially after getting to know or suspect what their capabilities are. We find us asking ourselves one a very important question, and that is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Are we ready to trust thousands of dollars in an electronic account and know that it cannot be harmed by the presence of things that we are really not sure about?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The obvious answer would be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“noà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . This is the most sensible answer that indeed most organizations might give. But what if all the organizations that are aware of the same give t he same answer, and surely they will, what happens to the pace of trade? Does it slow down or altogether come to a stand still? (Glass, B. 2000) Organizational Impacts/Issues: The fear is that there will be total chaos as a result of the realization of the situation. This is because there will be a fear in most of the people who use the Internet for these transactions. There will also be some who do not want to give up this means of transactions, and it is for this reason that there will also be many breaks in the trade relations between many organizations, locally and internationally. When this occurs the overall trade of many countries will be affected in different ways. This will reflect in the economic instability of countries, which could possibly lead to more competition taking place between the top currencies of the world. But why does everyone have to go through all the hassle? Why doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t everyone simply upgrade their software with something that can free them from these cyber pests? The answer is plain and simple. There is software that is available that can detect and delete these Internet cookies and other sneaky software, but the only hitch is that they have to be constantly monitored just like the software viruses are dealt with. It is basically because of the fact that people do not take these Internet cookies so seriously that they donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t even consider implementing software that is required to combat their entry. This is because of the cost of it all. They feel that it is an unnecessary expense to do the same. The fact is that in order to guarantee almost one hundred percent protection against any sort of software threat, an organization needs to create a budget so that they can afford and the implement one that is feasible for their work (Glass, B. 2000). Aside from the Internet cookie there is also another fear, one that is really up to a lot of mischief. These are the soft ware hackers that are on the loose. These are the people who we really have to be on the look out for, and it is extremely essential that any organization dealing in large amounts of currency exchange should have the latest software to combat these hackers. But the problem is that organizations do not take this all too seriously. Another thing is that there are certain kinds of hacking software that are developed to hack any other. These are sometimes not combated till the development of an anti hacker, which may take a lot of time to develop. Though, there are plenty of these anti hacker software available, it appears even then, computers are not safe. Nowadays, it is not a trend for hackers to target government computers. It seems that their attention has shifted to more vulnerable equipment that holds vital information of financial transactions, and can aid and reward them equally. These are much easier and lucrative targets that are, more often than not, unprotected. Priorities of the hacker, as we might think, are focused on the more important places such as banks. But hackers are much quicker to decide where they can have a field day. They can attack a computer in your home, whether one is hooked up to the Internet through the general cable or through a dial-up modem. Even with the application of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"wall fireà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, 47% of executives faced a problem of being hacked (Martinez, M. 2002). This is enough to prove how badly the same is hitting computers. However, with the introduction of Blackice PC protection, the problem seems to be solved temporarily. This software program monitors the path that the user takes to exchange the financial information and then protects this path every time the computer is switched on. When the user is on this path, the program can detect whether there is any foreign program entering i t or not. It then disables the same, and the message is relayed back to the user. But even so, no software program is one hundred percent accurate. There is many a slip between the cup and the lip, and one can never say that any software program or anti virus can offer 100 % protection. This is because the software hackers seem to almost always find a way around any hacker protection. This is the reason why we have to always update our software with the latest ones (Boulton, C. 2001). Again, in this case we can see that the pace of business can be affected. This is because of the method in which the transactions are being made are being affected or restricted. The restriction that takes place directly affects the overall process of business. This could mean more of an expense for the organization, as it will have to extend its services in some way, if it is to allow its workers to continue working from their homes. If not, then that means that business is restricted to fewer hours a day. This kind of action will definitely slow the pace of business down considerably (Glass, B. 2000). Direct payments too, can also be affected due to the interference of hackers on line. This is the reason why it is extremely risky for a person to send his or her passwords or credit card number while they are chatting on the Internet. This is another very risky means of communicating because during this process sensitive information can very easily be picked up. It is one of the easiest software to hack. Organizations that donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have any offices in various parts of the world have gone through a lot of hard ship in this respect. Their only means of communicating with their clients is through programs such as these. If these have to be abandoned then it could mean that a whole lot of people might suffer as a result of the same (Glass, B. 2000). In addition to the transactions and the flow of information that are made through the Internet on a modem or a cable, we can also say that the wireless method of communication is by no means a safe mode of carrying out business these days, in fact, it is more vulnerable than the one that makes use of the cable or modem. The use of the wireless means of conducting business is supposed to be the most efficient and cost effective means of dealing with customers. But this also means that there are numerous outlets at which hackers can have access to the same. According to the latest information, these hackers go about their mischief just by sitting on Park benches or in their cars. They can detect the flow of any valuable information in cyber space and latch on to it in no time. If people were to give up this means of communicating and dealing with their customers then we would experience a sharp decrease in the business taking place. This is a relatively new way that people all over the world are doing business, as it is very easy for them to download anything from anywhere using their laptops. But again, if we have to start using software to combat these security risks, the user of the laptop would have to know how to apply the software, and even then they would not be 100 hundred per cent protected. Another reason why the anti hacker software is not a hundred percent effective is because there are a large number of technically ignorant people also using the Internet and downloading sensitive information. These people are not technically aware of the features of software such as the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"firewallà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, thus making them less effective (Boulton, C. 2001) (Glass, B. 2000) In truth, there is very little that can be done for the purpose of Internet security at present. This is because the anti hacker and software protection that is developed at the moment is always behind the software that the hackers keep on developing. There seems to be no end to the way that they relentlessly develop the same. No matter what software is developed to combat it all, there is never a one hundred percent protection against the same. Hackers have all the options and all the angles to aim at different software, and this is the reason for them being able to develop the kind of software that they do and always keep ahead of the anti hacker software developers. The only real form of protection that an organization can look to is developing a budget. With this, the organization can decide what kind of software protection it can implement. Along with this, the organization also needs to ensure that it keeps on updating this form of Internet security so that the protection that they attain is as close as possible to the 100 percent mark (Expert Recommends Protection Against Internet Hackers, 2001). Conclusion: Internet banking is a convenient means of speeding up things in everyday life. People and businesses both rely on the Internet for a variety of facilities, and these facilities need to be made safer than they are. It would be fine to accept the lack of privacy safety if it were limited to browsing. This would fine to accept because of marketing tactics and enabling of quicker searches in browsers. However, when it comes to serious issues such as bank accounts and sensitive information, it is thought that the Internet is not safe. Even if oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s bank account cannot be accessed directly, it is the exchange of sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, financial amounts, etc. that are at risk. These need to be protected as much as possible in order to make the Internet a safer place, and in order to make Internet banking more reliable and successful. Having seen the ways in which the privacy of a person or an organization can be devastatingly affected, it is always better to play it safe and make it tough for the hackers and Internet cookies to get passed ones security system. Simple virus protections are all seen as mandatory in this age of electronic financial transaction. One would surely be ready to conduct any kind of program that would save the world from a war that could emerge due to the onset of no privacy as far as electronic financial transaction is concerned. Having said this all, one should not think twice, and do whatever is possible to even salvage the near to 100 % of protection that can help save a lot of lives being affected. In doing so, an organization can be an example to others so that they realize the gravity of the situation and therefore, follow in the same footsteps. It should also be very clear to Internet providers that it is their duty to ensure their customers of the safety and security of personal a nd sensitive information. It is a law like this that will ensure the tightness of a net against any breach in security. If this is not done, then in the long run we will surely find that there will be a lot of people losing their faith in the Internet, and this will directly affect the pace of business, which will in turn affect the rest of the world. At the end again we find ourselves asking the same question, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"What is so fearful about an Internet cookie?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[13] Cookies have been getting a bad name due to widespread misunderstanding. The misunderstanding lies between the lines of what the cookie has intended to do and what other unintended functions it has carried out. People within the media and others too have built upon this and blown things way out of proportion. But this all needs to be straightened out and the first thing that we must do is define what the cookie really is. (Esquire 1997) An Internet cookie is actually a small text file that is sent from a web page to your hard disk, when you access the site. The cookie is then stored in your hard drive. The same server that sent it, every time you access the same site accesses it at a later date. It is the information stored in the cookie that tracks popular links, insert personalized information, send targeted advertisements, or save customized page settings. (Esquire 1997)